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International Bureau of the American Republics, 

WASHINGTON. D. C. 



MEXICO. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, NATURAL RESOURCES, 

LAWS, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, 

ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT, PROSPECTS OF 

FUTURE GROWTH. 



Edited and Compiled by ttie 

INTERNATIONAL BUREAU OF THE AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 



1904. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1904. 



International Bureau of the American Republics 

WASHINGTON. D. C. 



MEXICO. 



GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH, NATURAL RESOURCES 
LAWS, ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, 
ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT, PROSPECTS OF 
FUTURE GROWTH. 



9 



Edited and Compiled by ttie 

international bureau of the AMERICAN REPUBLICS. 



1904. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1904. 



While the utmost care is taken to insure accuracy in the publications 
of the International Bureau of the American Republics, no responsibility 
is assumed on account of errors or inaccuracies which may occur therein. 



JAN 33 1905 



-t r> 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. — Geographical sketch — Area and population — Topography — Clima- 
tology — Orography — Hydrography 5 

II. — Historical sketch 17 

III. — Ethnology and archaeology of Mexico, by Prof. O. T. Mason, etc.. 24 
IV. — Government and constitutional organization — Citizenship — Rights 

of foreigners — -Guaranties — Army and navy 47 

V. — Political divisions — The Valley of Mexico and the Federal Dis- 
trict — Capital city — Principal buildings — Public institutions 57 

VI. — The States and Territories of the Republic — Brief geographica,l 
sketch of each — Resources, means of communication, climate, 

seasons, population, capital cities, industries 70 

VII. — Agriculture — Review of the agricultural wealth of the country — 
Principal products, their cultivation — Facilities for obtaining 

Government lands — Land laws — Forest products 166 

VIII. — Stock raising 214 

. IX. — Mines and mining — Mining Laws — Taxes, etc 221 

X.- — Industries and manufactures 245 

XL — Commerce— Domestic and foreign trade — Statistical data — Ports 

and customs districts — Tariff , 262 

XII. — Financial organization — Public debt — Budget 295 

XIII. — Mints — Currency — Banks — Banking laws — Corporations 309 

XIV. — Means of communication — Railroads and railroad law — Telegraphs 

and telephones — Postal service — Steamship lines 327 

XV. — Public lands — Colonization and immigration laws 362 

XVI. — Education — Religion — Protestant missions 376 

XVII. — Patent and trade-marks laws 386 

XVIII. — Practice of medicine, dentistry, etc. — Cost of living — "Wages to 

labor — Building, etc 401 

XIX. — Miscellaneous — Statistical data — Weights and measures — Cham- 
bers of commerce — Treaties and conventions 407 

XX. — Bibliography and cartography 421 

3 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



American colonj' in the City of Mexico 20 

Chapultepec forest, City of Mexico 40 

American colony, City of Mexico 60 

Avenida 18 Poniente and Mexican National Railway station. City of Mexico. . 68 

City of Guanajuato, State of Guanajuato 100 

Palace of Guadalajara, State of Jalisco 110 

Amacusac Valley, State of Morelos 120 

Municipal Palace— Puebla — State of Puebla 126 

Port of Veracruz, State of Veracruz 148 

' ' El Zopilote ' ' Mining Works, Territory of Tepic 160 

Strawberry picking, Cuernavaca, Morelos 168 

Coffee grading - 178 

San Gabriel estate — Sugar factory— Morelos 198 

Irrigation dam near Irapuato, Guanajuato - 210 

Loreto Smelting Plant, Pachuca District, Hidalgo 230 

San Rafael Mining Works, Pachuca District, Hidalgo 240 

Rio Blanco Cotton Mills, Orizaba, Veracruz 248 

Coatzacoalcos Harbor, Tehuantepec 278 

Tampico, State of Tamaulipas 290 

" El Oro " Mining Works, State of Mexico 308 

Bridge on the Balsas River, Mexican Central and Pacific Railway — Guerrero. 330 

Piscquiac bridge — Jalapa and Tecalco Railway 356 

Cathedral of Guadalajara, Jalisco 368 

Juarez Theater, Guanajuato , 402 

4 



MEXICO 



CHAPTER I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL SKETCH — AREA AND POPXJLATION — TOPOG- 
RAPHY— CLIMATOLOGY— OROGRAPHY— HYDROGRAPHY. 

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. 

The country called Mexico, or New Spain, by the historians of the 
last century was situated between 9" and 40° north latitude, and 80° 
and 50° west longitude. Its length was 2,100 miles, and its breadth 
1,600. The United Mexican States of to-day, according to the latest 
official data, lie between 14° 30' 42" and 32° 42' latitude north, and 
86° 46' 8" and 117° 7' 31" longitude west from Greenwich, having a 
superficial area of about 1,987,201 square kilometers. The northern 
and eastern boundary of the Republic is the United States of America; 
the eastern, British Honduras, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of 
Mexico; its southern, the Pacific Ocean, Guatemala, and British Hon- 
duras; and the western, the Pacific Ocean. Its greatest length is about 
3,126 and its greatest width 1,226 kilometers. The widest part is 
along its boundary with the United States, and the narrowest the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the distance from ocean to ocean is 
only about 216 kilometers. The coast line measures 8,830 kilometers, 
as follows: Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea coast, 2,580; Pacific 
Ocean and Lower California, 6,250, the latter having 3,000 kilometers 
coast line. 

AREA AND POPULATION. 

The area and population of the Republic, according to the latest 
revised figures of the census, October 28, 1900, also the census figures 

5 



6 



MEXICO. 



of 1895 and the percentage of population per square kilometer in 1900, 
is shown in the following table prepared from Mexican official data: 



states and territories. 



CENTRAL STATES. 



Federal District. 
Aguascalientes.. 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 

MiJxico 

Morelos 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

San Luis Potosi . . 

Tlaxcala 

Zacatecas 



NORTHERN STATES. 



Chihuahua.. 

Coahuila 

Nuevo Leon. 
Sonera 



GULF STATES. 

Campeche 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Veracruz 

Yucatdn and Territory of Quintana Roon . 



Area in 
square kilo- 
meters. 



PACIFIC STATES. 



Lower California (territory) 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Guerrero 

Jalisco , 

Michoacan 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Tepic (territory) 

Islands , 



1,498.75 

7, 692. 00 
109, 495. 00 
28, 363. 00 
22, 215. 00 
23,185.00 

7, 082. 25 
31,616.00 
11,638.00 
62, 177. 00 

4, 132. 00 
63, 386. 00 



223, 094. 00 
165, 099. 00 
61,343.00 
198, 496. 00 



46, 855. 00 
26,094.00 
83, 597. 00 
75, 863. 00 
91,201.00 



151,109.00 
5, 887. 00 
70, 524. 00 
64, 756. 00 
86, 752. 00 
58, 594. 00 
91, 664. 00 
71,380.00 
28,371.00 
4, 042. 00 



Population. 



Census, 1895. 



Total 1 , r87, 201. 00 



468, 705 
102, 378 
292, 549 
1,047,817 
551, 817 
837, 981 
156, 786 
973, 876 
224, 848 
562, 195 
163, 244 
447, 265 



260,008 

237, 815 
307, 856 
189, 158 



87, 264 
133, 926 
203, 342 
853, 892 
297, 088 



41, 838 
55, 264 
318, 730 
417, 886 
1,094,569 
887, 008 
872, 902 
256, 868 
146, 805 



12,491,573 



Census, 1900. 



541, 516 
102, 416 
370, 304 

1,061,724 
605, 051 
934, 463 
160,115 

1,021,133 
232, 389 
575, 432 
172^315 
462, 190 



327, 784 
296, 938 
327,937 
221, 682 



86, 542 
159, 834 
218, 948 
981,030 
314, 087 



47, 624 
65, 115 
360, 799 
479, 205 
,1.53, 891 
930, 033 
948, 633 
296, 701 
150, 098 



13, 605, 819 



Per 

square 
kilo- 
meter. 



361.25 
13.25 

3.39 
37.43 
27.23 
40.31 
22. 61 
32.30 
20.83 

9.25 
41.68 

7.29 



1.40 
1.79 
5.34 
1.11 



1.84 
6.12 
2.61 
12. 86 
3.44 



.31 
11.06 
5.11 

7.40 
13.30 
15.87 
10.34 
4.15 
5.29 



a The Territory of Quintana Roo was created by act of December 14, 1900, and by act of February 25, 
1904, its political and municipal organization was established. 

Jiace and nationality. — Of the total population 19 per cent are of 
pure or nearl}^ pure white race, 43 per cent of mixed race, and 38 per 
cent of Indian race. Natives descended from ancient Indian tribes, 
and speaking little or no Spanish, numbered in 1895, 1,908,707. Of 
the mixed and Indian race onl}^ a very small proportion can be regarded 
as civilized. The foreign population in 1900 numbered 57,511. The 
nationalities most numerously represented were the United States, 
15,265; Guatemalan, 5,804; other Americans, 3,379; Spanish, 16,258; 
French, 3,976; British, 2,845; German, 2,565; Italian, 2,564; other 
European, 1,592; Chinese, 2,834. 

Baron von Humboldt, who at the beginning of the nineteenth century 
visited Mexico, in his work "Political Essay on New Spain," quotes 
at length a census made in 1810 by Dr. Fernando Navarro y Noriega, 
according to which the total population of Mexico amounted then to 



BOUNDAEIES. 7 

6,122,354 inhabitants, divided as follows: Europeans, includino- 
ecclesiastics and nuns, 18 per cent; Indians, 60 per cent, and mixed 
races 22 per cent. In 1875, according- to the census, the total popula- 
tion had increased to 9,495,157 inhabitants, divided as follows- Euro- 
peans and descendants of the Spaniards, 20 per cent; mixed races 43 
per cent, and native Indian race, 37 per cent. ' 

Daring- the sixty-five years elapsed between the two above-men- 
tioned censuses, deducting from the census of 1810 the inhabitants 
of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California (estimated at 58,338 
individuals), the increase of the population was 3,431,141, showing an 
increase in the European element of 1.1 per cent per annum and in the 
mixed race 3.25, while the native Indian decreased at the rate of 0.58 
per cent per annum, 

VITAL STATISTICS. («) 

Births.— AGQor^mg to the "Anuario Estadistico" for 1902, the num- 
ber of births for the Eepublic during 1901 was 470,060, of which 
224,259 were males and 225,801 females. The total population, as given 
by the census of 1900, being 13,605,919 inhabitants, the birth rate is 
34.50 per 1,000 inhabitants. 

Deaths.— ThQ total number of deaths during the same year was 
444,900, of which 231,061 were males and 213,839 females, the death 
rate being 32.19 per 1,000 inhabitants. Further classification of the 
deaths shows that there died 393,348 natives and 1,128 foreigners. 

BOUNDARIES. 

mth the United States.-The boundary with the United States, as 
fixed by the treaties of February 2, 1848, and December 30 1853 
begins at the mouth of the Rio Grande on the Gulf of Mexico and 
follows the river for 1,136 miles beyond El Paso, Tex., to the point 
where it meets parallel 31^ 47' latitude north, thence along said paral- 
lel for a distance of 100 miles; thence south to parallel 31° 20' north 
latitude, following this parallel in a westerly direction as far as the 
one hundred and eleventh meridian of longitude west from Greenwich. 
1 hence it runs m a straight line to a point on the Colorado River 20 
miles below the junction of the Gila, thence up the middle of said 
Colorado River to the intersection with the old line between Upper 
and Lower California, and thence to a point on the Pacific Ocean dis- 
tant 1 marine league due south of the southernmost point of the Bay 
of San Diego, the total distance from El Paso, Tex., to the Pacific 
being 674 miles. The whole extent of the boundary between the two 
countries is 1,833 miles. As this boundary line runs from the south- 
east to the northwest, Mexico has on the Pacific side 6° 34' 20" of lat- 
itude more than on the Gulf side. 

Owing to th e di scovery of min es in the immediate vicinity of the 
(«) See tables on pages 410-411, Chapter XIX. 



8 MEXICO. 

boundary line some 3^ears later, difficulties arose regarding the exact 
location of the line and the destruction of some of the original marks. 
A convention was then concluded between the two Governments at 
the city of Washington on the 29th of July, 1882, providing for the 
appointment of an international boundary commission to ascertain 
the condition of the monuments marking the boundary line, a prelim- 
inary reconnoissance of the same line to be made by both Governments 
in accordance with the stipulations of the convention. The reconnois- 
sance was made in 1883 by officers of both Governments, independently, 
and their respective reports were submitted showing the necessity of 
a more definite demarcation of the boundary line. The other stipula- 
tions of this convention were not carried into effect in due time, and 
another convention to revive and continue the same was concluded at 
Washington between the two Governments on the 18th of February, 
1889. In compliance with this new convention the officers appointed 
by the two Governments began the work assigned to them, and pre- 
sented their joint report dated Washington, August 14, 1896." 

With Guatemala. — The boundary with Guatamala is fixed by the 
treaties of September 27, 1882, and April 1, 1895. It runs from a 
point on the Pacific coast, 3 leagues distant from the upper mouth of 
the river Zuchiate, to the Caribbean Sea, following the course indi- 
cated by the treaties. The boundary with Belize is defined by a treaty 
signed at the City of Mexico on July 8, 1893, and ratified by the 
Mexican Senate on April 19, 1897. This line runs from the mouth of 
Boca Bacalar Chica— a strait separating Yucatan from Ambergris 
Key— to the boundary between Mexico and Guatemala, following the 
demarcation set forth in the treaty. 

Cessions of territory. — By the treaties known as the Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo treaty, February 2, 1848, and the Gadsden treaty, December 
30, 1853, Mexico ceded to the United States 930,690 square miles, or 
over one-half of her former territory. The area of each of the Mex- 
ican cessions to the United States is estimated as follows: 

Square miles. 

Annexation of Texas 362, 487 

By Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty 522, 568 

By Gadsden treaty 45, 535 

Total 930, 590 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The country possesses a curious physical formation. Rising rapidly 
bj' a succession of terraces from the low sandy coasts on the east and 
west, it culminates in a central plateau running in a northwesterl}" 
and southeasterly direction, and having an elevation varying from 

a Report of the International Boundary Commission, United States and Mexico, 
1891-1896. 



OROGRAPHY. 9 

4,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea. High above this plateau tower the 
snow-capped crests of several volcanoes, most of which are extinct. 
The highest peaks are the volcanoes of Popocatepetl, 17,540 feet; the 
Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, 17,362 feet; the Ixtacihuatl, 16,076; Toluca, 
15,019; Colima, 14,363, and Ajusco, 13,628 feet, besides several others 
varying from 4,000 to 13,000 feet in height.^' 

OEOGRAPHT. 

Two Cordilleras, or high mountain ranges, traverse Mexico, running 
almost parallel to the coast, one along the Gulf of Mexico and the 
other along the Pacific coast. The former runs from 10 to 100 miles 
from the coast, leaving an imperceptibly inclined plane between the 
sea and the foot of the mountains, while the cordillera on the Pacific side 
runs very near the coast, leaving a very narrow strip of land between 
the mountains and the sea. This range has several branches running 
in different directions, the most continuous being the Sierra Madre of 
the Pacific. Parallel to this last-named range is the Sierra de la 
Giganta in Lower California, which slopes abruptly toward the east 
like the Atlantic escarpments. Corresponding with the Sierra Madre 
on the west are the broken eastern scarps of the central plateau. 

The cordillera of Anahuac, which surrounds the valleys of Teno- 
chtitlan and Puebla, is the most important orographicallj^ and histor- 
ically of the central cross ridges and is supposed to culminate in 
Popocatepetl and Ixtacihuatl. It seems, however, that these volcanoes 
belong to a more recent upheaval, as they are nearly at right angles to 
the main axis of the central plateau, south of the line formed by the 
Orizaba or Citlaltepetl, on the coast south of Veracruz, to which cor- 
respond, on the west, the Jorullo, in Michoacan, Colima, near the 
coast in Jalisco and the Revillagigedo group on the Pacific. Nearly 
parallel to these are the sierras of Guerrero and southeast of the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec those of Oaxaca and Chiapas toward the frontier of 
Guatemala. In the course of time these mountains have become dis- 
integrated by rain and other natural causes, and the filling up of the 
spaces between them has formed a series of valleys rich in agricultural 
resources. These valleys, known as the central plateau, run for about 
150 miles east of the Cit}^ of Mexico, in a northwesterly direction. 
The plateau is so level that when there were no wagon roads in Mexico 
one could travel in a carriage from the City of Mexico to Santa Fe. 
In contrast with the plains and the at times barren districts of the 
plateau, the territory is occasionally broken by depressions called 
" barrancas," having in some instances a depth of 1,000 feet and being 
several miles in length. These are covered with a luxurious growth 
of trees and shrubs and watered by small streams running through the 
middle of the valley. Among the most remarkable are the Barranca 

«See table on pages 408-409, Chapter XIX. 



10 MEXICO. 

dv Bertraii, on the western slope from Guadalajara to Colima, and the 
Mochitiltl from Guadalajara to Tepic. 

Coasts. — The eastern coast of Mexico, bathed by the Caribbean Sea 
and the Gulf of Mexico, is flat, low, and sand}^, except near the mouth 
of the Tabasco River, where, at some distance from the coast, appear 
the heights of San Gabriel, extending northeast and southwest for 
several miles. The coast on the Pacific side, though generallj^ low, is 
^lere and there broken by sj)urs extending from the Cordilleras to the 
ocean. 

Gulfs and lays. — The principal gulfs are those of Mexico, Cali- 
fornia, and the Gulf of Tehuantepec, the lirst named ranking among 
the largest in the world. The only bays worthy of notice are those of 
Guaymas, Santa Barbara, Topolobampo, and Navachiste, in the Gulf 
of California; Concepcion, La Paz, and Muleje on the west coast of 
the same gulf; San Quintin, Magdalena, and Amejas, on the Pacific 
coast, in Lower California, and San Bias, and Valle de Banderas on 
the coast of Tepic. 

Lakes. — The largest lake on Mexican territory is the Chapala Lake, 
measuring over 80 miles in length by 30 in breadth. The Valley of 
Mexico has seven lakes, one fresh and six salt water, the three largest 
being Chalco, Xochimilco, and Texcoco. The other lakes in Mexico 
are Catemaco, in the State of Veracruz; Cariel and Carpintero, in the 
State of Tamaulipas; Encantado, in Tabasco; Bacalor, in Yucatan; 
Alcuzague, in Colima; Cuitzeo, Tacascuaro, and Patzcuaro, in Michoa- 
can; Yuriria, in Guanajuato, and Metztitlan in Hidalgo. 

Islands. — Mexico has a great many islands near the coasts, none of 
them very large and most of them uninhabited, although some are of 
great fertility and are capable of supporting a large population. 
Among the most important are El Carmen, the largest in the Gulf of 
Mexico; San Juan de Ulua and Sacrificios, opposite the port of Vera- 
cruz; Mujeres, in the Caribbean Sea; Guadalupe, about 75 miles from 
the west coast of Lower California; Tres Marias, a group off the same 
coast; the Revillagigedo group, near the coast of Colimas and Alcatraz 
Island, not far from the coast of the State of Michoacan. 

HYDROGRAPHY. 

The principal rivers of Mexico are the Rio Grande, 1,500 miles long, 
forming, from El Paso, Tex., to the sea, the boundarj^ line between 
the United States and Mexico; the Lerma or Santiago, 540 miles long; 
the Mescala or Balsas, 426 miles in length; the Yaqui, 390 miles; the 
Grijalva, 350 miles; the Fuerte, 340 miles; the Usumancita, 330 miles, 
and several others. The topographical conditions of the country are 
such as to cause the streams, in their progress toward the sea, to be 
continually precipitated in the form of cascades, etc., thus rendering 
navigation exceedingly difficult on account of their varying depths, 



GEOLOGY. 11 

but greatl}^ facilitating their availabilit}^ for motive power. The Rio 
Grande rises in Colorado (United States of North America), passes 
through New Mexico, and b}^ the time it reaches Mexican territory 
is almost dry, as the inhabitants of both States have utilized the 
greater portion of its waters for irrigation purposes. After passing 
Presidio del Norte (Ojinaga), the river Conchos and other tributaries 
supply the Grande with water, thus enlarging its stream, though never 
to the extent attained before its passage through Colorado and New 
Mexico. The Mescala or Balsas River rises in the central plateau, 
near the Valley of Mexico, passes through the State of Puebla to the 
southwest, and empties into the Pacific at Zacatula. This river is nav- 
igable for a short distance along its lower reaches; above the bar it is 
accessible to small craft. The Panuco River rises north of the Valley 
of Mexico, and under the names of Tula and Montezuma it describes 
a vast semicircular bend toward the west across the Hidalgo uplands 
and receives the streams of the Huasteca of Veracruz and Tamaulipas, 
beyond which it is joined by the various streams flowing from Quere- 
taro, and finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the port of Tam- 
pico, which is at present the best harbor on the Gulf coast. The River 
Lerma, or Santiago, is also a considerable stream. It rises in the 
mountains southwest of Toluca, passes through the Lake of Chapala, 
which it leaves under the name of Guadalajara, changing again its 
name to Tololotlan and Santiago before it empties near San Bias, hav- 
ing received the waters of many tributaries. The Grijalva and Usu- 
macinta rivers rise in the State of Chiapas, and, after being joined by 
many streams coming from Guatemala, empty into the Gulf of Mexico 
at the city of Frontera, in the State of Tabasco. The Papaloapam 
rises in the State of Oaxaca, passes through the State of Veracruz, and 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico at the town of Alvarado, a few miles 
south of Veracruz. There are also several other rivers more or less 
important. In all, there are in Mexico 95 streams worthy of mention, 
their total extent being 32,400 kilometers, 10,000 of which are nav- 
igable for ships of great draft, 1,800 for canoes and small steamers 
not exceeding 3 feet in draft, and the remaining 10,600 kilometers 
are useless for navigation, but suitable for irrigating purposes and in 
many cases for motive power. 

GEOX^OGT. 

" The geology of Mexico * has been but imperfectly studied. In the 
higher ranges the prevailing formations are granite, which seem also 
to form the foundations of the plateaus, above which rise the traps, 
basalts, mineral-bearing porphyries, and more recent lavas. Hence 
Lyell's theory that Mexico consisted originally of granite ranges with 

« Coffee and India-rubber culture in Mexico; Matias Romero. New York, 1898, 
p. 12. 



12 MEXICO. 

intervening valleys subsequently filled up to the level of the plateaus 
by sul)terranean eruptions. Igneous rocks of every geologic epoch 
certainly form to a large extent the superstructure of the central 
plateau. But the Mexican table-land seems to consist mainly of meta- 
morphic formations which have been partly upheaved, partl}^ inter- 
penetrated and overlaid by igneous masses of all epochs and which" are 
chiefl}^ represented by shales, grej^wacke, greenstones, silicious schists, 
and especially unfossiliferous limestones. All these formations are 
alike remarkable for the abundance and variety of their metalliferous 
ores, such as silver, silver glance, copper, and gold. Gneiss and 
raicac30us schists prevail in Oaxaca and on all the southern slopes 
facing both oceans. But the highest ranges are formed mainly of 
plutonic and volcanic rocks, such as granites, syenites, diorites, 
mineral-bearing trachytes, basalts, porphyries, obsidian, pearlstone, 
sulphur, pumice, lavas, tufa, and other recent volcanic discharges. 
Obsidian (itzli) was the chief material formerly used by the natives in 
the manufacture of their cutting implements, as shown by the quarries 
of the Cerro de las Navajas (Knife Cliil), near Real del Monte and 
Pachuca, in the State of Hidalgo. Vast deposits of pumice and the 
purest sulphur are found at Huichapam and in many of the craters. 
But immeasurably the most valuable rocks are the argentiferous 
porphyries and schists of the central plateau and of Sinaloa, unless 
they are destined to be rivaled hy the auriferous deposits of Sonora, 
Horizontal and stratified rocks, of extremely limited extent in the 
south, are largely developed in the northern States and chalk becomes 
very prevalent toward the Rio Grande and Rio Gila valleys. To this 
chalk and to the sandstone are probably due the sandy plains which 
cover vast tracks in North Mexico, stretching thence far into New 
Mexico and Texas. Hence, the Bolson de Mapimi, a vast rocky wilder- 
ness inhabited until recently by wild tribes, occupies a space of per- 
haps 50,000 square miles in Coahuila and parts of the surrounding 
States. 

"None of the horizontal layers seem to be very rich in ores, which 
are mainl}^ found in the metamorphic. Paleozoic, and hypogene rocks 
of Durango, Chihuahua, and the south. Apart from Sinaloa and 
Sonora, which are now known to contain vast stores of the precious 
metals, nearlj^ all the historical mines lie on the south central plateau 
at elevations of from 5,500 to 9,500 feet. A line drawn from the 
capital to Guanajuato, and thence northward to the mining town of 
Guadalupe y Calvo of Cliihuahua, and southward to Oaxaca, thus 
cutting the main axis of upheaval at an angle of 45°, will intersect 
probably the richest known argentiferous region in the whole world. 

"Of other minerals the most important are copper, found in a pure 
state near the city of Guanajuato, and associated with gold in Chi- 
huahua, Sonora, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacan, and elsewhere; iron 
in immense masses in Michoacan and Jalisco aud in Durango, where 



CLIMATOLOGY. 13 

theCerro del Mercado is a solid mountain of magnetic iron ore; lead 
associated with silver, chiefly in Oaxaca; tin in Michoacan and Jalisco; 
sulphur in many craters; platinum, recently found in Hidalgo; cinna- 
bar, also recently found in Morelos and Guerrero; ' steppe salt' in the 
sandy districts of the north; 'bitter salt' at Tepayac and many other 
places; coal at various points; bismuth in many parts, marble, ala- 
baster, gypsum, and rock salt in great abundance throughout the 
plateaus and sierra." 

CLIMATOLOGY.* 

The geographical position of Mexico gives it a great diversity of 
climate. The heat of the torrid zone is experienced on the seacoast 
and the low, marshy tracts bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, and in 
the valleys shut in by mountains 3,000 feet above sea level. The 
night breezes, however, bring compensation for the heat of the da}", 
and the rains, which begin usuall}^ in June and last until November, 
are so abundant and fall so regularly that they refresh the atmosphere 
and are the main reliance of the agriculturist. So decided is the effect 
of the rains on the atmosphere that the seasons are divided into two 
only, viz, the rainy and the dry season. Trees are never entirely 
denuded of their foliage, but as each leaf falls through age it is imme- 
diatel}^ replaced by another, thus the bare autumnal limbs incident to 
northern climes are unknown. 

The differences in climate, dependent upon the different degrees of 
altitude, are so great in Mexico that the vegetable products of the 
countr}^ embrace all that can be found between the Equator and the 
Polar Circle. 

The mean temperature in the hot regions varies from 77° to 82° F. , 
and often rises to lOO*-", and in some coast localities to 105°. 

The temperate zone lies between 3,000 and 5,000 feet above sea 
level. Here the mean temperature is from 62° to 70° F. , the varia- 
tion during the season being not more than 4° or 5°. This may be 
called the region of eternal spring. Semitropical productions have 
their homes here, mingled with the products of both the tropical and 
cold regions. In this privileged region both extremes of heat and 
cold are unknown and in it are found several cities, among others 
Jalapa and Huatusco, in the State of Veracruz, Chilpancingo in 
Guerrero, and Ameca in Jalisco. There are farms here where wheat 
and sugar cane grow on the same parcel of ground. 

Between 7,000 feet above the level of the sea and greater heights 
lies the cold region, having a main temperature of from 59° to 60° F. 
Here the rainfall is five times less than in the temperate zone. The 
changes of temperature are but small from one end of the year to the 
other, although the diurnal changes between sunrise and sunset are 
often considerable. 

« See table on page 410, Chapter XIX. 



14 MEXICO. 

The climatic conditions of Mexico are undergoing great changes on 
account of the destruction of the forests. Rains were formerly very 
abundant and the atmosphere very moist, the country being covered 
with thick forests, but with the difficulty experienced in transporting 
the coal of the country, the population has had to depend entirely for 
their supply of fuel upon charcoal, thus denuding the mountains and 
changing very materially the climatic conditions of some regions. The 
case is different, however, in the lowlands, which are sparsely popu- 
lated and where the country is still so thickly wooded that passage 
through them is impossible unless a path is made bj^ felling large trees 
and clearing away the underbrush and weeds. In these regions mahog- 
any, cedar, rosewood, etc., abound. 

The most thickly populated region lies in the central plateau, high 
above sea level, and so well protected from the winds and storms by 
mountains that the climate is even, temperate, and delightful. The 
late 'Mr. Romero, from whose work, "Mexico and the United States," ^ 
much valuable data have been procured in the preparation of this 
work, makes the following remark (p. 37): "The impression prevails 
in the United States that Mexico, lying to the south and running 
toward the Equator, must be much warmer than this countr}^; but this 
is not so. Even in warm places, like the lowlands on the coast, we do 
not have the extreme hot weather that is experienced in summer in 
the United States. The sea breezes refresh the atmosphere at night 
and cool it considerabl}^, making, therefore, a verj^ great contrast 
with the summer heat in this country. The medium climate of the 
valley of Mexico, for instance, which is the one that has been best 
observed and understood, varies comparatively little between summer 
and winter, its greatest variations* being between day and night on the 
same day." 

It may be said that the climate of Mexico, if not the most invigor- 
ating is, without doubt, one of the most delightful in the world. The 
region of temperate lands and oceanic slopes enjoys a perpetual 
spring, being exposed neither to the severity of the northern winter 
season nor to the extreme of summer heat. 

FLORA. 

The flora of Mexico is unrivaled. It has been remarked that the 
most striking characteristic of the Mexican flowers is their rich color. 
The prevailing hue of the flowers is always rich and brilliant. There 
can be no more pleasing or extensive field for the botanist than the 
tropical forests of Mexico, in whose deep shades bloom the most 
exquisitely tinted flowers and orchids. In the vicinity of Orizaba, a 
locality almost incomparable as regards the great variety of flowers, 
orchid collectors may find a paradise. 

« Published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1898. 



FAUNA. 15 

In the vallej^ of Mexico there is no dsij in the year that finds the 
markets wanting- in beautiful roses and flowers to delight the eye and 
regale the senses, and the marvelous size the calla lilies, heliotrope, 
camelias, and poppies attain arrests wondering attention. There are 
about 50 varieties of lilies blooming in varied garb in this valley. 
Each belt — the hot, the temperate, and the cold — displays its own 
peculiar varieties of flowers, and in each has nature spread her most 
gorgeous colors, her fairest tints, and her sweetest perfumes. 

The arboreal vegetation of the country embraces 114 different species 
of building and cabinet woods, among them being the pine, oak, fir, 
cedar, mahogany, rosewood, ironwood, etc.; 12 kinds of dj^ewoods; 8 
of resinous trees — the cacao and india rubber, copal, liquid amber, 
camphor, turpentine, mesquite, dragon's blood, and the mastic. There 
are IT varieties of oil-bearing trees and plants, among which are the 
olive, almond, sesame, flax, cocoa, palm, Peruvian balsam, etc. 

The countr}^ is especially rich in medicinal plants, there being no 
less than 59 classified species of these, and many more still unclassified. 

Fibrous plants abound and their products form a large proportion 
of the export trade. The best-known fibers are the heniquen or sisal 
hemp, the ixtle, pita, maguey, jute, flax, ramie, aloe, and cotton. 

Of Mexican fruits and tobacco so much has been written that it is 
only necessary to say that through the diversified climate of that 
favored land it enjoys the fruits of every clime, and that these reach 
perfection in size and taste. The varieties are infinite. There are no 
less than twenty kinds of bananas. At the Philadelphia Commercial 
Museum, Mexico had on exhibition 1,036 samples of her woods, 18 of 
dyewoods and substances, 68 of gums and resins, 369 of medicinal 
plants, and 152 of textile fibers. A great quantit}^ of red cedar is ex- 
ported from the State of Veracruz to the United States for the manu- 
facture of cigar boxes. There is a sawmill in this State, owned by a 
German, which is engaged in cutting up red cedar logs for such use, 
having a capacity of 1,000 tons of lumber a j^ear. At the Tennessee 
Centennial Exposition there were exhibited some bamboos from the 
State of Veracruz 10 feet in length. The local name for these giant 
bamboos is " tarros. 

FAUNA. 

The animal kingdom is almost as extensively^ represented in the ter- 
ritory of Mexico as the botanical. There are three species of large 
felidae — the puma, jaguar, and ocelot. Wolves, coyotes, and wildcats 
are numerous in the northern States. A specie of sloth inhabits the 
southern forests, which also contain five varieties of monkeys. Other 
wild animals are beavers, moles, martens, and otters. The armadillo 
and iguana are very common, and are used by some of the natives as 
food. Venomous serpents and noxious insects lurk in the forests of 
the hot lands. The mountains and foothills present a veritable para- 



^^ MEXICO. 

dise to the sportsman — de^r, hare, rabbits, quail, wild pigeons, par- 
tridges, and an infinite variety of birds and ground game abounding. 
Horses, cattle, sheep, and goats are found almost everywhere, and are 
the source of much wealth and industry. 

The birds of Mexico are far famed for their brilliant plumage and 
singing qualities. In the hot lands the birds are more distinguished 
for beauty of plumage than melody of voice, their coloring being as 
A' pried as that of the flowers; but in the colder belts splendid songsters 
fill the air with thrilling notes, A list of the feathered inhabitants of 
the country includes 353 species. 

Sperm and grayback whales, seals, and sea lions abound in the 
western waters of Lower California and in the gulf of that name. 
The waters of both coasts, as well as the rivers and mountain streams, 
teem with a great variety of fish.^ Alligators infest the river mouths 
of both coasts. Turtles of all kinds are also found in abundance on 
the coasts. Tortoises exist in the waters of Yucatan and Lower Cali- 
:^rnia, as well as on the coasts of Sinaloa. The shell is an important 
•Article of export, amounting to about $20,000 a year. Near La Paz, 
in the Gulf of California, extensive beds of pearl oysters exist. 

Seiior Don Antonio Garcia Cubas^ mentions 52 varieties of mammal 
quadrupeds as existing in the Republic, and 203 varieties of fowls, 
including domestic fowls, as well as over 50 kinds of humming birds, 
diftering in color and shape and forming a chromatic scale of brilliant 
tints, running from sea green through bluish green to emerald green, 
and from the lightest straw color to the deepest scarlet and fiery red. 
Of reptiles the authority cited enumerates 43 classes, and of batrachians 
13 species. 

Among insects, those claiming attention are the cochineal (Coccus 
cacti) and the honey bee, because of the excellent materials they pro- 
duce beneficial to industry and to commerce. The former insect is 
cultivated in Oaxaca, living on the prickly-pear cactus, and producing 
a red liquid dye. Winterbotham, one of the last century's historians, 
in his history of America, relates that the trade in cochineal by the 
city of Oaxaca alone in the year 1796 amounted to 200,000 crowns in 
value. 

The bee is to be found all over Mexico, busily producing great 
quantities of honey and wax. 

The silkworm, although comparatively neglected, is said to yield an 
annual profit of $40,000. 

The country offers a vast and rich field to the naturalist and ento- 
mologist for the study of the innumerable species of coleopter, there 
being no less than 77,000 of these catalogued. 

« Since 1891 the Government has devoted much attention to pisciculture. It 
established fish hatcheries and introduced large quantities of carp, trout, and salmon 
trout. 

&Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, 1893 — Mexico. 



CHAPTER II. 

HISTORICAL SKETCH. 

An impenetrable mist of fable envelops the early history of Mexico. 
Scientific investigation and archeological research have not yet lifted 
the veil to disclose the original inhabitants of that country. Ruins 
and hieroglyphics in different portions of the Republic reveal the story 
of a series of immigrations from the north toward the south, but the 
point from which the movement began has not been determined. 

Mexican historians generally agree, founding their theories on the 
interpretations of hieroglyphics and upon the ancient ruins, that the 
country was invaded by seven families successively immigrating from 
the north, all speaking the same language, the Nahuatl or Mexican; 
but history does not reveal the starting point of these races nor dis- 
close the mystery of the multiplicity of languages of so diverse a 
character spoken by the many tribes that followed them, nor the 
causes that impelled them to abandon their former homes. According 
to the Mexican scholar Pimentel, not one of the 108 indigenous tongues 
bears any analogy to Asiatic tongues, but certain resemblances to 
the language of the Esquimaux would indicate direct communication 
between Asia and America. 

The annals of the Toltecs have furnished a starting point for the 
history of Mexico. These composed a semicivilized nation who inhab- 
ited a country called Huehuetlappallan, toward the north of the con- 
tinent, where they built cities and temples and were versed in 
agriculture, the arts, and the computation of time. Owing to civil 
disturbances, the Toltecs, with a number of their partisans and neigh- 
bors, in the year 544 A. D., were expelled from their country and 
began their wanderings southward, founding cities on their way. 

One hundred and seventeen years after leaving their country they 
reached the present site of Tula (50 miles north of the City of Mexico, 
on the line of the Mexican Central Railroad), where they laid the 
foundation of their powerful kingdom. This tribe remained here 
until overthrown by the "lords of Jalisco," in 1116, eleven "mon- 
archs" having reigned. 

There is a notable event in the history of the Toltecs which deserves 
mention, as it is well authenticated. It is the origin of the universal 
and famous Mexican beverage pulque in the reign of the eighth Toltec 
509a— 04 2 17 



18 MEXICO. 

chief, Tepaucaltzin, in the latter half of the eleventh century. It is 
narrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered the method of 
extracting- the juice of the maguey plant, of which it is made, and sent 
some of the fermented liquid to his chief b}^ the hand of his daughter, 
the beautiful Xochitl, called the Flower of Tollan (Tula). The chief, 
enamored both of the drink and the maiden, retained the latter a will- 
ing- prisoner, and she became the mother of his illegitimate son, who 
afterwards wielded the scepter. This incident inaugurated the troubles 
of the Toltecs. 

After the dispersion of the Toltecs, a roving tribe, the Chichimecas, 
hearing- of the former's overthrow, occupied the abandoned country, 
starting for it from the north in 1117. 

Other tribes of the original seven successively descended from the 
north and spread themselves over the valley of Mexico, founding cities 
and erecting temples and palaces. 

The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aztec, or Mexican, whose 
annals claim the greatest interest in the history of Mexico. This tribe 
is supposed to have originally come from the north of California, 
according to the historian Clavijero, their country being called Aztlan. 
The}^ reached Tula in 1196, remaining there nine years, and spending 
eleven in other parts of the valle3^ At the expiration of this time 
they arrived in Zumpango, 30 miles north of their future capital. 
Here the}^ were well received, and the chief's son married a daughter 
of one of the Mexican families. From this marriage sprang the mili- 
tary chiefs of the Mexicans. 

After many wanderings they settled on the marshy islands near the 
western borders of Lake Texcoco, and there, in the year 1325, was 
established the nucleus of the city first called Tenochtitlan, derived, 
according to some authorities, from Tenoch, one of their priests and 
leaders. Other authorities claim that the name comes from Tenuch 
(prickly-pear cactus), as there is an old legend that the leaders of the 
tribes of Mexicans, wandering in search of a place of rest, saw an 
eagle standing upon a cactus strangling a serpent on the site of the 
City of Mexico. This legend has been generally accepted, and gave 
Mexico the design for its escutcheon. The present name of the city 
finds its source in the name of the Aztec's god of war Mexitli, also 
known as Huitzilopochtli. The name of the country demonstrates the 
hold the maguey plant had upon the ancient tribes. Mexican tradi- 
tions, as preserved in the most ancient writings, relate that this god 
Huitzilopochtli was born of a virgin belonging to the noble family of 
Citli (free and ancestral); that his cradle was the heart of a maguey 
plant (metl), and hence the name of Mecitli, afterwards changed into 
Mexitb, and finally into Mexico. 

Here the Aztecs constituted their first government, which was theo- 
cratic and military, under Tenoch, who died in the year 1343. Three 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 19 

3^eai's subsequent to his death the form of government changed, and 
in 1376 the first king was elected. Ten kings followed, during the 
reign of which the Aztecs devoted themselves to the arts of peace and 
built a fine city, connecting it with the mainland by four causeways. 
The last of the Aztec monarchs was Cuauhtemoc, whose conquest by 
Hernando Cortes brought an end to the Mexican dynasty. 

Cortes landed on the island of San Juan de Ulua, in Veracruz Har- 
bor, on the 21st day of April, 1519, and in two years, August 13, 1521, 
had captured the City of Mexico and unfurled the flag of Spain over 
the palace of Moctezuma. 

Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from 1521 to 1821 
successively by five governors, two roj^al commissioners {audiencias), 
and sixty-two viceroys, the last of whom, Juan O'Donoju, did not 
assume control. 

During the administration of the first viceroy, Don Antonio de Men- 
doza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, discoveries were activel}^ prosecuted 
in the north, the first money was coined in Mexico, the University of 
Mexico and several colleges were founded, and the first printing press 
in the New World was introduced. The School of Mines, which is 
still standing, and yearly graduating talented men, was founded by 
the viceroy the Marquis of Branciforte. The construction was begun 
in 1797, and the building was completed in 1813. Its total cost was 
about $2,000,000. 

The modern history of Mexico and the commencement of the almost 
continuous internecine wars may be said to da^e from the "grito de 
Dolores" on the night of the 16th of September, 1810, by the parish 
priest of Dolores, Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who gathered about 
him many trusty followers under his banner to the crj^ of : "Long 
live religion! Long live our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long 
live America, and death to bad government!" This cry is what is 
known as "el grito de Dolores." 

Several efforts to cause a rebellion against the Spanish authorities 
had been made previous to this date, in fact ever since 1798, during 
the incumbency of the forty-fifth vicero}^, Miguel Jose de Azanza, 
but they were all suppressed. 

Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was victorious in 
several engagements, but he and his lieutenants — Allende, Aldama, 
and Jimenez — were captured and put to death in 1811, the first on the 
31st of July and the three last-named on June 26. The bullets that 
crashed through these patriotic breasts terminated the first stage of 
the war for independence. 

One of the greatest figures in Mexican histor}^ then came to the 
front, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, the parish priest of Caracuaro, 
who by his audacity, valor, and military sagacit}^ was accorded a posi- 
tion at the head of the leaders of the cause of independence. After 



20 MEXICO. 

many notable engagements, in which he was ahiiost always victorious, 
he captured Acapulco on April 13, 1813, thus ending his second cam- 
paign. On the 14th of September, 1813, in the town of Chilpancingo, 
the first Mexican Congress was installed, which two months later 
(November 6) issued the declaration of independence and decreed the 
emancipation of the slaves. The first provisional constitution was 
adopted October 22, 1814. 

Morelos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by a deserter 
from his ranks named Carranco, was taken to Mexico, tried, and sen- 
tenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out at San Cristobal 
Ecatepec on the 22d of December, 1815. 

But the cause of independence was still sustained by many leaders 
in different parts of the Republic, among them being Francisco Javier 
Mina, a Spanish officer, who resolved to do battle for the independ- 
ence of Mexico. He disembarked at the port of Soto la Marina on 
April 15, 1817, with 500 men recruited in the United States, and 
marched rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories. He was 
apprehended at the ranch called Venadito, and was shot the 11th of 
November, 1817. Many other patriot chiefs arose to lead the inde- 
pendent movement, but most of them met the fate of their predeces- 
sors. Among these was Guerrero, who, after many hazardous exploits 
and brilliant achievements, finally, on the 10th of January, 1821, held 
a conference with Agustin de Yturbide, brigadier-general in command 
of the royalist forces, at Yturbide's request, and the two leaders agreed 
to proclaim independence. The latter proclaimed what is known as 
"The Plan of Iguala," on February 24, 1821. 

Yturbide, then assuming command of the forces, marched on 
Mexico, making Valladolid (now Morelia), Queretaro, and Puebla 
capitulate on the way. On reaching Mexico the Viceroy Apodaca 
was deposed July 5, 1821. 

The sixty-second and last viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, arrived at Vera- 
cruz on the 30th of July, and, upon hearing of the condition of affairs, 
issued a proclamation and entered into communication with the inde- 
pendents. Yturbide went to Cordoba, where a conference was held, 
resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, with slight modifications, 
confirmed the plan of Iguala, and Spanish domination in Mexico, which 
had lasted three hundred years, closed forever when, on the 27th of 
September, 1821, Yturbide made his triumphal entry into the capital. 

The second Mexican Congress, the first after securing independence, 
met on February 24, 1822, and elected Yturbide Emperor on the 19th 
of May of the same year. He was crowned and anointed with great 
pomp and ceremony in the great cathedral of the capital on the 21st 
of June following as Agustin I, Emperor of Mexico. His reign was 
short. The people who had been warring so long could not settle 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 21 

down to peaceful pursuits. Ambitious leaders thirsted for high places, 
and the smoke of the battles for independence had scarce lifted before 
General Santa-Anna headed a revolutionary movement in Veracruz, 
proclaimed a republican form of government, and compelled Yturbide 
to abdicate and leave the country. He became desirous to revisit it, 
and, returning to Mexico, was arrested immediately upon disembark- 
ing, taken to Padilla, brought before the legislature of Tamaulipas in 
session there, and by that body condemned to death. He was shot 
July 19, 1824, just five days after landing. 

The Federal Republic was established on the ruins of the Empire. 
The third Mexican Congress assembled November 7, 1823, and pro- 
claimed on October 4, 1824, a republican constitution, which was pat- 
terned closely upon that of the United States. The first President of 
Mexico, the patriot Gen. Guadalupe Victoria, took the oath of office 
on October 10. Congress was dissolved December 24, 1824, and the 
first constitutional Congress convened January 1, 1825. During this 
year England and the United States formally recognized Mexico. 

Independence being secured, two parties came into existence — the 
Spanish, which became the Centralists, and the Republicans, who 
became Federalists. To this division is due the constant internal dis- 
turbances and agitations in Mexico from 1828 to 1846. During this 
period five radical organic changes swayed the people between central- 
ism and federation. 

The two parties succeeded each other in power, mostly through revo- 
lutions, until 1847, when the war with the United States, which had 
commenced the year previous, ended and the latter nation acquired 
more than two-fifths of the Mexican territory. After the declaration 
of peace between the two countries the Mexican Liberal party remained 
in power (except from 1853 to 1855, when General Santa-Anna gov- 
erned as Dictator), carrying out its theories of government. In the 
year 1857 the Constitution now in force in Mexico was framed b}^ a 
constitutional assembly. 

In 1861 England, Spain, and France formed an alliance to declare 
w^ar against Mexico, but the alliance had been scarcely perfected when 
the two first-named powers withdrew and France was left alone in the 
enterprise. War between the two nations lasted from 1862 until 1867 
without the French gaining any decided foothold. 

Possessing themselves finally of the capital, they established an 
empire, aided by a number of disaffected Mexicans, and placed the 
crown upon Maximilian of Hapsburg, Archduke of Austria. 

The Archduke arrived in the city of Mexico on June 12, 1864, accom- 
panied by his wife, Carlota, daughter of Leopold 1, King of the Bel- 
gians. These two unfortunate beings were crowned Emperor and 
Empress of Mexico with great solemnity in the cathedral and ruled a 
portion of the country until 1867. 



22 MEXICO. 

Maximilian, bereft of the aid and protection of the French, 
intrenched himself in Queretaro, where he was made prisoner by the 
Republicans and shot, together with the Imperialist Generals Miramon 
and Mexia, at the Cerro de las Carapanas, the 19th of June, 1867. 

Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great ability, patri- 
otism, and energy, was the President of the Republic during the tur- 
bulent times of the reformation and the war with France. He entered 
the capital victorious on the 15th of July, 1867, and retained the Pres- 
idency until his death, in 1872, being the only Mexican who has died 
during an occupancy of that office. His immediate successor was 
Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who retained the office until 1876, when he 
was unseated b}^ the revolution of Palo Blanco. Gen. Porfirio Diaz 
succeeded Lerdo de Tejada in May, 1877, and was followed by Gen. 
Manuel Gonzales in 1880. In 1884 General Diaz was elected to a 
second term, and has since continued at the head of the Govern- 
ment. His administration has been attended with great progress and 
prosperity. 

The governments of Mexico since the securing of independence have 
been as follows: 

Regencies. — (1) Composed of Generalisimo Don Agustin de Yturbide, 
Don Juan O'Donoju, Don Manuel de la Barcena, Don Isidro Yanez, 
and Don Manuel Velasquez de Leon, 1821 to 1822. (2) Don Agustin 
de Yturbide, Don Isidro Yanez, Don Miguel Valentin, Count de Casa 
de Heras, and Brig. Gen. Don Nicolas Bravo, 1822. 

^m^'^><?.— Yturbide, with the title of Agustin I, 1822 to 1823. 

Provisional Governments. — The council charged with the supreme 
executive power, composed of Don Nicolas Bravo, Don Guadalupe 
Victoria, and Don Pedro Negrete, with Don Jose Maria Michelena and 
Don Miguel Dominguez as substitutes, 1823 to 1824. 

Federal Rejmhlic. — Gen. Guadalupe Victoria, 1823 to 1829; Gen. 
Vicente Guerrero, 1829; Don Jose Maria Bocanegra, 1829; Don Pedro 
Velez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Gen. Luis Quintanar 
and Don Lucas Alaman, 1829; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1830 to 
1832; Gen. Melchor Musquiz, 1832; Gen. Manuel Gomez Pedraza, 
1832 to 1833, Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833; Gen. Antonio Lopez 
de Santa- Anna, 1833; Don Valentin Gomez Farias, 1833 to 1834; Gen. 
Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1834 to 1835; Gen. Miguel Barragan, 
1835 to 1836; Don Jose Justo Corro, 1836 to 1837. 

Central Republic. — Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1837 to 1839; Gen. 
Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna (substitute), 1839; Gen. Nicolas Bravo 
(substitute), 1839; Gen. Anastacio Bustamante, 1839 to 1841; Don 
Javier Echeverria, 1841. 

Dictator shi2)8. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1841 to 1842; 
Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1842 to 1843; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- 
Anna, 1843; Gen. Valentin Canalizo, 1843 to 1844. 



HISTOEICAL SKETCH. 28 

Central Rej)ublic. — Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1844; Gen. 
Valentin Canalizo, 1844; Gen. Jose Ignacio Herrera, 1844 to 1845; 
Gen. Mariano Paredes y Arrillag-a, 1846; Gen. Nicolas Bravo, 1846. 

Federal HejnMic. — Gen. Mariano Salas, 1846; Don Valentin Gomez 
Farias, 1846 to 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1847; Gen. 
Pedro Maria Anaya, 1847; Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa-Anna, 1847; 
Don Manuel de la Peiia y Pena, President of the Supreme Court of 
Justice, 1847; Gen. Pedro Maria Ana3^a, 1847 to 1848; Don Manuel de 
la Pena 3^ Pena, 1848; Gen. Jose Joaquin de Herrera, 1848 to 1851; 
Gen. Mariano Arista, 1851 to 1853; Don Juan B. Ceballos, President 
Supreme Court of Justice, 1853. 

Dictatorshij)S. — Gen. Manuel Maria Lombardini, 1853; Gen. Antonio 
Lopez de Santa- Anna, 1853 to 1855; Gen. Komulo Diaz de la Vega, 
1855; Gen. Martin Carrera, 1855; Gen. Juan Alvarez, 1855; Gen. 
Ignacio Comonfort, 1855 to 1857. 

Oonstitutio7ial Presidents. — Gen. Ignacio Comonfort, 1857 to 1858; 
Don Benito Juarez, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1858 
to 1861. Don Benito Juarez (elected), 1861 to 1872; Don Sebastian 
Lerdo de Tejada, President of the Supreme Court of Justice, 1872; 
Don Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada (elected), 1872 to 1876; Gen. Porfirio 
Diaz (provisional), 1876; Gen. Juan N. Mendez (substitute), 1876; Gen. 
Porfirio Diaz (elected), 1877 to 1880; Gen. Manuel Gonzalez, 1880 to 
1884; Gen. Porfirio Diaz, 1884 to 1888; Gen. Porfirio Diaz, 1888 (still 
in ofiice). 

During the years from 1857 to 1860, in the capital of the Republic, 
which at the time was in the power of the Conservative part}^, there 
governed in the capacity of Presidents the following persons: 

Gen. Felix Zuloaga, 1857; Gen. Manuel Robles Pezuela, 1858; Don 
Jose Ignacio Pavon, 1858; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1858, Gen. Felix 
Zuloaga, 1859; Gen. Miguel Miramon, 1859 to 1861. 

As a result of the French intervention, the Imperial Government 
was established from 1864 to 1867. 

While awaiting the arrival of the Archduke Maximilian of Austria, 
Bishop Juan B. Ormachea and Generals Juan N. Almonte and Mariano 
Salas governed as regents. 



CHAPTER III. 

ETHNOLOGY AND ARCH-ffiOLOGY OF MlSXICO. 

By Otis T. Mason. 
Curator of the Division of Ethnology in the United States National Museum. 

No attempt is here made to resolve into its constituent ethnic ele- 
ments that remarkably composite people which first set eyes on Yuca- 
tan in 1517. Suffice it to say that Iberian, Semite, Hamite, Goth 
and Vandal, Roman and Celt had mingled their blood in that stream 
of brave and adventurous men. From remotest time Spain had been 
the meeting' ground of races, of peoples, of languages, and of religions. 
One does not know which to admire more — the brilliant recklessness of 
the soldier or the fiery zeal of the priest. The Mexican of to-day has 
the blood of more races in his veins than any other American, and as 
the present Indian population is largely metis, what a compound of 
races! "No other portion of the globe," sa3^s H. H. Bancroft (1874, 
ii, 87), "embraces within equal latitudinal limits so great a variety of 
climate and vegetation as Mexico." It is also true that within the 
area of the original territory there were more families of native lan- 
guages than in all the Western Hemisphere besides; and, to complete 
the chain, there were more kinds and grades of culture there. The 
Seri Indians, of Sonora, are as abject as the Fuegians, while the Nahuatl 
and Maya speaking tribes of the valley of Mexico and of Yucatan 
occupied the most elevated position for culture in the New World. 

The origin of the Mexican aborigines is involved in that of the 
American Indians, since within the present boundaries of that Repub- 
lic are gathered representatives of every zone, from the Apache, an 
Athapascan, whose principal home is in Alaska, to the tribes of 
Oaxaca and Chiapas, who are the children of a torrid clime. There 
are now in Mexico ten times more Indians than were ever at an}^ time 
within the United States domain. In the works of Orozco y Berra 
(1864), Pimentel (1862), and AJfonso L. Herrera (1895) the reader 
will find complete lists of all tribal names. These include, often, sev- 
eral titles for the same tribe, to wit, their own name, by which they 
call themselves; their place name, as we now mark persons by the 
town where they live; names, often of contempt, by which a tribe is 
designated among its neighbors, besides titles conferred through 
mistake by ignorant observers. From among all these bewildering 
designations the following are selected. The linguistic families are 
24 



LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. 



25 



marked by the termination -an, after the example of the Bureau of 
American Ethnology. In assigning tribes to their stocks frequent 
references are made to Brinton (1891) and Gatschet (1885). The last- 
mentioned authority has given most personal study to the Nahuatlan 
family since Buschmann (1859). 

Mention must also be made of the linguistic map in Cubas (1876) and 
to Keane (1878). ■ In the table the family names of Pimentel appear in 
the order followed by the author. On the right is given the abbre- 
viated form here adopted. The numbers in the margin are Pimentel's. 
Following this list of families another will be found, in which the 
States of the Republic wherein the families chiefly reside accompany 
the name of each. It is quite possible that these may need emenda- 
tion, but the information here given is the best at hand. 

Linguistic families in Mexico. 



Pimenters list (1862). 



Author's list (1900). 



Mexicana .' Nahuatlan 

Sonorense Opata-Pima Piman 

Guaicura a y Cochimi-Laimon Yuman 

Seri j Serian 

Tarasea Tarascan 

Zoque-Mixe Zoquean 

Totonaca Totonacan 

Mixteco-Zapoteca Zapotecan 

Matlalzinga o Pirinda Otomian (not certain) . 

Maya-Quich6 1 Mayan 

Chontal (not a family name) i Tequistlatecan (?) 

liuave ' Huavan 

Apache i Athapascan 

Othomife I Otomian 



, 750, 000 

85, 000 

2,500 

200 

250, 000 

60, 000 

90, 000 

580, 000 

5,000 

400, 000 

31, 000 

3,800 

8,000 

704, 734 

Total ' 63, 970, 234 

J \ 

a Guaicura may be a separate family. 

6 These numbers are not accurate, but serve for comparison. 



Census in 
1895. 



LOCATION OF MEXICAN LINGUISTIC FAMILIES. 

Nahuatlan or Mexican family. — Agua.scalientes, Colima, Federal 
District, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoacan, Morelos, 
Oaxaca, Puebla, Sinaloa, Tabasco, Tlaxcala, Veracruz. 

Piman fafnily. — Made a subfamily of Nahuatlan b}^ Buschmann 
(1859), Gatschet (1879), and Brinton (1891); Chihuahua, Durango, 
Jalisco, Sinaloa, Sonora, Zacatecas. 

Yxmian family. — Northern part of Lower California. 

Serian family . — Sonora, Tiburon Island. 

Tarascan family . — Michoacan, a few in Guerrero and Jalisco. 

Zoquean family . — Oaxaca, chiefly; also Guerrero and Puebla. 

Totonacan family. — Northern part of Puebla and Veracruz, 

Zapotecan family. — Chiefly in Oaxaca; also in Guerrero and Puebla. 

Mayan family. — Yucatan, Chiapas, and Veracruz. 

Tequistlatecan family. — Oaxaca (Brinton, 1891, p. 148). 

Hua/van family. — Chiapas. 



26 MEXICO. 

Athapascan faiiiihj. — Chihuahua and Sonora. Apache intruders 
from United States. 

Otow kin family. — Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, 
Michoacan. The Chontals of Oaxaca and Guerrero are placed by 
Brinton in a provisional famil}", which he names Tequistlatecan, and 
puts the Triquis in the same. The Chontals of Tobasco are Mayan 
(1891, p. 14:6). Matlalzinca may be a family. Not in Pimentel's list 
are the Chinantecan family, in Oaxaca; the Chiapanecan family, in 
Chiapas, and a remnant of the Tanoan family, in Chihuahua. 

A glance at the table of linguistic families shows their relative 
importance. The census is from Herrera (1895), and may be defective, 
but is correct enough to exhibit the relative importance of these fam- 
ilies in the past and present history of Mexico. Those that were, in 
fact, the predominant factors in that culture were, proceeding south- 
ward from the boundary line of the United States, as follows: 

Piman, the Opata-Pima of the later Mexican authorities, occupy the 
western northern States as far south as Guadalajara, lying along 
the Gulf of California, except where they are cut off by the Seri, but 
they do not anywhere approach the ocean, being intercepted by the 
Nahuatlan tribes. Eminent authorities, among them Buschmann 
(1854), Gatschet (1876), and Brinton hold the Piman to be a branch of 
the Nahuatlan family, including the Shoshonean in the United States 
(Powell, 1891, p. 108), the Sonoran or Opata-Pima (Brinton, 1891), and 
the Nahuatl or southern branch. This stock now occupies the site 
of the Casas Grandes and other adobe ruins, and it is reasonable to 
suppose that their ancestors were the builders and inhabitants of many 
ancient pueblos and cliff sites, both in Arizona and northern Mexico. 
(Bandelier, 1890.) 

Nahuatlan. — Following the Bureau of American Ethnology in keep- 
ing the Piman as a separate family leaves the Nahuatlan free to include 
only Pimentel's Mexicana. The tribes of this stock are found in 
almost unbroken continuity from Sinaloa along the Pacific slope to 
the border line of Guatemala. In the valley of Mexico they occupied 
three districts, Tezcuco, Tlacopan, and Tenochtitlan. This family 
holds the most prominent position in the history of the Conquest. 
(Thomas, 1898, 233; Bancroft, 1875, ii, 133; Cubas, 1876.) 

Otomian, a widely spoken language foi'merly. The tribes were 
among the earliest in the valley of Mexico, and they spread themselves 
out over Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Queretaro, San Luis, and Michoacan. 

Tarascan, inhabitants of Michoacan. The Tarascos were builders in 
stone, metal workers, and most excellent weavers. (Leon, 1874.) 

Totonacan, of Veracruz, the first natives encountered by Cortes. 
(Thomas, 1898, 332.) 

Zapotecan, the Mixteco-Zapoteca, of Pimentel, are in Oaxaca and 
Guerrero. The ruins of Mitla are within their territory, with their 



ABOEIGINAL TRIBES. 27 

wonderful artificial hills, stone buildings, fretworks in cut stones, 
columns, and wall paintings. (Holmes, 1897, 227, quoting Charnay 
and Bandelier.) 

Zoquean, Zoque-Mixe family are in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Tabasco, 
between the Mayan and the Zapotecan tribes. Little is known of their 
origin, save a tradition of their having come from the South. If their 
ancestors were ever possessed by the spirit of culture progress, once 
so exalted here, the pride of former days now sleeps "as though that 
soul were dead." 

Mayan family, the advance guard of new world progress. Scholars 
have consecrated their lives worthily to the Maya civilization. After 
Bancroft (75, ii, 630-805) consult Holmes (1895, pt. i), Brinton (91, 
153-159, with notes), Thomas (1899), Seler (1887), Maudslay (1897), 
Forstemann (1890), Gunckel (1897). 

The Mayas, excepting a colony of Huastecas, on the Rio Panuco, in 
Veracruz, lived together in Yucatan, Guatemala, and Honduras (Stoll, 
1884, 180 pp.). To them may be assigned the wonderful ruins of 
Palenque in Chiapas, of Copan in Honduras, of Uxmal and Chichen- 
Itza in Yucatan. 

The following tribal names have been selected out of the man}'- 
hundreds of designations before mentioned because it seemed possible 
to assign these to their linguistic families and locations. The list will 
at least form a working basis for future inclusions and exclusions: 

ABORIGINAL TRIBES IN THE REPUBLIC OP MEXICO, TOGETHER WITH THEIR LINGUISTIC 

FAMILIES AND LOCALITIES. 

Acaxees (Nahuatlan F. ), Sinaloa, Durango. 

Acxotecas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico, ancient division of Chichimecs. 

Acolhuas (Nahuatlan F. ) , Mexico, ancient ruling tribe, Colhuas. 

Agualulco (Nahuatlan F. ), Tabasco, also Ahualulco. 

Ahomaos (Piman F.), Sinaloa, also Ahomes. 

Aicales (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, dialect of Choi., see Mopanes. 

Ajoyes (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, dialect of Choi., also Axoyes. 

Alames (Mayan F. ), Chiapas. 

Alasapa (Coahuiltecan F. ), Coahuila, N. Leon. 

Amuchgos (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero, also Amusgos. 

Apache (Athapascan F. ), Northern boundary; the Apaches of Yuma affinity are all 
in the United States. 

Aripas (Yuman F. ), Lower California, branch of Waikuru. 

Ateacaris (Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco, Cora proi^er. 

Aztecas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexicans of Anahuac. Seven tribes came from Aztlan in 
the north, and the Aztecs were one of them. They arrived in the following order: 
Sochomilcos, Chalcas, Tepanecos, Tescucans, Tlatluicans, Tlascalans, Mexicans or 
Aztecas. 

Babiocora (Piman F.), branch of Teguima, Teguis. 

Basirora (Piman F.), Sonora, Sinaloa. 

Batucari (Piman F. ) Sinaloa. 

Batucos (Piman F. ), Sonora, division of Teguis. 

Benixonos (Zapotecan F.), same as Cahoncos or Nexicha. 



28 MEXICO. 

Biara (Piman F.), Sinaloa, dialect of Tehues. 

Cahita (Piman F.), Sonora, Sinaloa, include Yaquis, Mayos, Tehuecos, Zuaques. 

Cajonos (Zapotecan F. ), same as Beiiixonos. 

Ciituxanos (Coahuiltecan F.), Coah., Tarn., also Catuxanos. 

Ceris, same as Seris. 

Coahuiltecan Family, Texas and N. E. Mexico; also Texan. 

Coahuiltecos (Coahuiltecan F.), Coahuila. 

Cochimis ( Yuman F. ), north and middle California peninsula. 

Cocomaricopas (Yuman R), Maricopas, Pina agency, Ariz. 

Cocomes (Mayan F. ), said to be in Yucatan. 

Cocopas (Yuman F.), both sides of Colorado mouth; river and mountain tribes. 

Coguinaches (Piman F.), Sonora, division of Opata. 

Cohuixcas (Nahuatlan F.), Guerrero. 

Colothans (Naluiatlan F.), name of country for Coras, Zac, JaHsco. 

Comanche (Shoshonean F.), northern border of Mex., now in Oklahoma. 

Comitecos (Mayan F.), Chiapas; Chafiabal of Comitin. 

Comecrudos (Coahuiltecan F. ), Tamaulipas, wrongly Carrizos. 

Comeyas (Yuman F.), southern California, probably Dieguenos. 

Comoporis (Piman F. ), Sinaloa. 

Comoyei (Yuman F. ), between Colorado Eiver and ocean; Comeya, Quemaya. 

Comuripas (Piman F. ), Sonora. 

Conchos (Yuman F. ), California, branch of Guaicuru. 

Conchos (Coahuiltecan F. ), Chihuahua. 

Corarus (Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco. 

Coras (Nahuatlan F. ), Jalisco, in Sierra del Nayarit. 

Coras (Yuman F. ), Lower California. 

Cotoname (Coahuiltecan F.), Tamaulipas. 

Coviscos (Zoquean F. ), Puebla, Cahuixcas, dialect of Mixe (Brinton). 

Coyoteros (Athapascan F. ), northern boundary; now Arizona. 

Cuchan (Yuman F. ), Yuman proper, in Arizona and California, south part of state. 

Cuicatecos (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca. 

Cuitlatecos (Nahuatlan F. ), Guerrero, Michoacan, Tecos; also Popolocas. 

Culuas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico; Colhuas, identified with Tezcucans. 

Chalcas (Nahuatlan F.), Mexico, also Chalcotecanos; around the lake of Chalco, 
"where sand is." 

Chalquefios (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico; same as Chalcas. 

Chamules (Mayan F.), Chiapas, are Tzental. 

Chanabales (Mayan F. ), Chiapas; Comiteco, Jocolobal. 

Changuaguanes (Athapascan F. ), Chihuahua. 

Chapanecos (Chiapanecan F. ), Chiapas., Mangues in Nicaragua. 

Charaeos ( Otomian F. ) , Michoacdn ; Pirindas. 

Charenses (Otomian F. ), Michoacdn; Pirindas. 

Chatinos (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca and Chiapas. 

Chayopinos (Coahuiltecan F. ), Coahuila. 

Cheles (Mayan F.), Yucatdn. 

Chiapanecan family, with remnants in Chiapas. 

Chichimecos, ancient tribe of Mexico, not a family; Brinton, 1894, 129; some 
were Nahuatlan, some Otomian. 

Chilpaines ( Athapascan F. ) , Coahuila. 

Chimalapas (Zoquean F.), Tehuantepec. 

Chimalpanecs (Nahuatlan F.), ward of Tezcuco. 

Chinantecan family, Oaxaca; Tenez, Teutecas, Tzinan tecos; Brinton, 1894, 144, 158. 

Chinarras (Nahuatlan F.) Chihuahua; Humas. 

Chinipa (Piman F.), Chih., div. of Tarahumara; see Varogio. 



ABORIGINAL TRIBES. 29 

Chinquimes (Zoquean F. ), Puebla, Guerrero, Tlapanecos, possibly the ancient 
Xiximes. ' 

Chochona ( Zapotecan F. ) , Oaxaca. Put also with Tlapaneco. 

Choles (Mayan F. ), Chiapas. 

Chorotegas (Chiapanecan F.), or Cholutecas; Nicaragua. 

Ohuchones ( Zapotecan F. ) , Oaxaca, Guerrero. 

Cuitlatecos (Nahuatlan F. ), tribe of Mexicans, "dunghill people." 

Chontals, non-Nahuatl tribes; the word means "outcasts;" Brinton, 1894, s. r. 

Chontals (Mayan F. ), Tabasco; identified with Tzental. 

Chontals (Tequistlatecan F. ), Oaxaca; Brinton; Belmar makes them Zapotecan. 

Dohmes (Piman F. ), Sonora, Dohemabatuco; see Eudeve; is probably a local 
name. 

Eudeves (Piman F. ), Sonora; branch of Opatas. 

Guaicuru (Yuman F. ), Lower California; may be a separate family (Gatschet). 

Guailopos (Piman F. ), Chihuahua; see Chinipas. 

Guaymas (Piman F. ), Sonora. 

Guazapari (Nahuatlan F. ), Chihuahua. 

Heve (Piman F. ), Sonora; seeDoheme, Eudeve. 

Hichucios (Piman F.), Sinaloa, dial, of Tehueco. 

Himeris (Piman F. ), Sonora. 

Hizos (Piman F. ), Chihuahua. 

Huastecas (Mayan F.), Veracruz; Huaxtec. 

Huavan family, Tehuantepec; also written Huavi, Wabi. 

Huaztontecos ( Huavan F. ) , Tehuantepec. 

Huicholes (Nahuatlan F. ), Zacatecas, Jalisco. 

Huites (Nahuatlan F.), Sinaloa. 

Humas (Nahuatlan F. ), Chihuahua; Chinarras. 

Humes (Nahuatlan F.), Durango; Hiumi (Latham), Acax^. 

Husorones (Piman F. ), Chihuahua, dial, of Tarahumara. 

Ipapanes (Totonacan F.). Keane puts with Huaxtec. 

Itza (Mayan F.), Yucatdn, Chichen-Itzae; Itzalanos. 

Jaripecha (Tarascan F.), Guanajuato. 

Jocolabal (Mayan F. ), Chiapas; Chanabal. 

Jonaz (OtomianF. ), Guanajuato, Quer^taro. 

Jo pes (Zoquean F.), Chiapas; Tlapanecos, Yopes. 

Jovas (Piman F. ), Sonora; Jobas, Ovas, dial, of Opata, perhaps the same as the 
Eudeves or Heves. 

Juaves, same as Huave, Huavan family. 

Kupules (Mayan F.), Yucatdn. 

Kutchan (Yuman F.) , Lower Colorado River; Ko-Utchan, Cutganes. 

Lacandones (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, not a language (Berendt). 

Laimonos (Yuman F. ), Cal. peninsula, with Cochimi. 

Matapanes (Piman F. ), Sinaloa. 

Matlalzincos, or Matlalzingas, Nahuatl name for Pirinida. May be a family 
(Saville). 

Matlames, same as Matlalzincos, with ending-tzin removed. 

Maya (Mayan F.), Yucatdn, Tabasco, and Chiapas. 

Mayan family. All over southeastern Mexico. 

May OS (Piman F.), Sonora, subtribe of Cahita. 

Mazahua (Otomian F.), southwestern part of valley of Mexico; Michoacano. 

Mazapil (Nahuatlan F.), Zacatecas. 

Mecos (Otomian F.), Zacatecas; see Jonaz, Serrano. Mecos seems abbreviation of 
a longer tribal name, as with Teco, Tecos. 

Mazatecos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca; anct. Mazatldn. 



30 MEXICO. 

Mecos (OtomianF. ), Guxanajuato; see Jonaz. 

Mexicauos (Nahuatlan F. )■ The southern Nahuatlaii tribes, so called. 

Meztitlatecas (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico. 

Michoas (Tarascan F. ), Michoacdn. 

Mijes (Zoquean F.), Oaxaca; also Mixes. 

Mimbrenos (Athapascan), Sonora, or Arizona. 

Mixtecos (Zapotecan F.), Oax., Pueb., Guer., Miztoguijxi. 

Monquies (Yuman F. ). See Waicuru. 

Mopanes (Mayan F.), Chiapas, are Choles. This problematic tribe probably 
speaks Maya. 

Muutzizti (Piman F.), Jalisco, branch of Cora, Muutzicat. 

Nahuatl and Nahua, instead of Aztec or Mexican, the "national" designation; 
divided into northern, or Piman (Sonoran), and southern, or Mexican (Gatschet). 

Nahuatlan family includes all so-called Uto-Aztecan tribes in Mexico. 

Naolingos (Totonacan F.), Veracruz, Puebla. 

Nayaritos (Nahuan F. ), same as Coras. 

Nevomes (Piman F.), Sonora. 

Netzichos (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca; also Nexitzas. 

Niquiran (Nahuatlan F. ), Mexico. 

Ocotlanos (Zapotecan F. ), Oaxaca. 

Olmecas, preceded i'abled Toltecs in Mexico. Language unknown. 

Onaras (Piman F. ), Sonora, branch of Opatas. The name means "salt." 

Opata (Piman F.), Sonora, Rio Yaqui. 

Otomi (Otomian F. ), Middle States, many spellings. Mexico, Veracruz, Pueblo, 
Tlaxcala, Queretaro, Guanajuato, San Luis, Michoacdn. 

Pacheras ( Piman F. ) , Chihuahua, branch of Tarahumara. 

Fames (Otomian F. ), Mexico, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Nuevo Leon, San Luis. 

Fantecos (Mayan F. ), Veracruz, are Huaxtecs. 

Papagos (Piman F.), Sonora, some in Arizona (southern). 

Pauzanes (Coahuiltecan F. ), Coahuila. 

Pericues (Yuman F. ), Lower California. 

Pihiques (Coahuiltecan F.), Coahuila, Mexico. 

Pimas (Piman F.), Sonora; P. Altos and P. Bajos. 
• Pinomes (Zoquean F. ), Tabasco, Oaxaca, Chiapas; Tlapanecos. 

Pirindas (OtomianF.), Michoacan, Mexico; same as Matlaltzincas; pirinti means 
"interior (tribe) " in Matlaltz language. May be a family. 

Piros (TanoanF.), Chihuahua. 

Popolucas, non-Nahuatl tribes of southern Mexico. 

Popolucas of Oaxaca, are Zapotecan. 

Popolucas of Puebla, are Zoquean; the popolucas of southern Guatemala also speak 
Mixe (a Zoquean dialect). 

Potlapiguas (Piman F. ), Sonora, dialect of Pima. 

Putum (Mayan F. ), Chiapas, wrongly Punctunc; see Choi. 

Sabaibos (Nahuatlan F. ), Sinaloa, Durango; see Acaxees. - 

Sabaquis (Piman F. ); same as Sobaipuris. 

Saharipas (Piman F. ), Sonora. 

Seris (Yuman F. ), Sonora; same as Ceris. 

Serranos (Otomian F.), Tamaulipas, probably. 

Sinaloas (Piman F. ), Sinaloa;- see Cahitas. 

Sobaijiuris ( Piman F. ) , Sonora. 

Sochimilcos (Nahuatlan F. ), first of seven original Mexican cave-dwelling tribes. 

Soltecos (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca, 

Sonoras (Piman F.), Sonora; Opatas. 

Supis (Yuman F.), Chihuahua. The Hava sii-Pai, also of Arizona. These are 
Yuman, 



ABOEIGINAL TEIBES. 31 

Tanoan family, on the Rio Grande and its tributaries. (Bivell.) 

Tantoyoc (Mayan R), dialect of Huaxtec. 

Tapanecos (Nahuatlan F.), original Mexican tribe. 

Tapijulapanes (Zoquean F.), Tehuan tepee. 

Tarahumaras (Piman F.), Chihuahua. 

Tarascos (Tarascan F.), Michoacan; also Guerrero, Guanajuato, Jalisco. 
. Tarelepa (Mayan F.), southern Mexico. 

Tatimoles (Totonacan F.), Veracruz. 

Teacualitzistis (Nahuatlan F.), branch of Cora del Nayarit. 

Teatas (Piman F.), Sonora; also Tehatas. 

Tebacas (Nahuatlan F.), branch of Acaxees. ' 

Tecojines (Zoquean F.), Jalisco, Tlapanecos. 

Tecoripas (Piman F.), Sonora. 

Tecos (Nahuatlan F.), Michoacan, for Cuitlatecos. 

Tecualmes (Piman F. ?), Jalisco; see Coras. 

Teguimas (Piman F.), Sonora; Opata, Teguis. 

Tehua (Tanoan F. ), near El Paso de Texas. 

Tehuecos (Piman F.), Sinaloa, dial, of Cahita. 

Tejanos, same as Coahuiltecan, Texanos. 

Tektikilhatis (Totonacan F.), Veracruz. 

Tenimes (Zoquean F.), Puebla; see Yopes. 

Teotenancas, first Chichimecs in valley of Mexico. 

Tepanecos, third Nahuan tribe to arrive in Mexico and one of three confederated 
tribes at tnne of conquest; capital, Tlatopan. 
Tepeguana (Piman F.), Durango, Buschman's Aztec-Sonora. 
Tepozcolula (Zapotecan F.), Oaxaca, dialect of Mixtec. 
Tequis (Piman F. ), Division of Opata. 
Tequistlatecan family, in Oaxaca, see Chontal, Triquis. 
Texanos (Coahuiltecan F.), Texas and N. E. Mex., family name 
Texones (Coahuiltecan F.), Tamaul, "raccoons," also Tejones, dialect of Pakawa 
( Gatschet) , tattooed, ' ' same as Coahuiltecan. 
Tewan, see Tanoan family. 

Tezcucos (Nahutlan F.), Mex., see Acolhuas, fourth Nahuatlan tribe to arrive in 
Anahuac. 

Tlacopiin, now Tacuba, suburb of the City of Mexico. 
Tlahuicos (Nahuatlan F.), one of seven original Mexican tribes 
Tlapanec (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero (dialect of Mixe, according to Brinton) 
Tlascalans ( Nahuatlan F. ) , sixth in order of seven orig. Mex tribes 
Tlatluicana (Nahuatlan F.), fifth Nahuatlan tribe in Anahuac 
Toltecas, people of Tula, or Toltecs, Brinton, '94:129; Thomas '99-?35 
Tontos (Yuman F.), Sonora, now in Arizona. 
Totonacos (Totonacan F. ), Veracruz, first natives seen by Cortes. 
Inquis (Zapotecan F.), according to Belmar; Tequistlatecan F., Brinton, Oax 
Tzentals (Mayan F. ), Tobasco and Chiapas, many spellings 
Tzotzils (Mayan F.), Chiapas, dialect of Quelene. 
Uchitas (Yuman F.), branch of Waikuru 
Varogios (Piman F. ), Chih., br. of Taruhamara. 

Vebetlateca (Mayan F.), Chiapas, the orthography of Don Palacio, xvi. century. 
^Xicalancas, preceded Toltecs in valley of Mexico. Valentini thought they were 

Xicayan (Zapotecan F.), Guerrero and Puebla 
Xixnnes (Nahuatlan F.), classed with Acaxees. 
Yaquis (Nahuatlan F.), R. Yaqui, Sonora. 
Yavapais (Yuman F.), eight bands, various spelling 
Yopes (Zoquean F.), Puebla, dialect of Mixe (Brinton) 



32 MEXICO. 

Zapotecos ( Zapotecan F. ) , Oaxaca, many tribes. 
Zoquean family, Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca. 
Zuaques (Piman), Sinaloa, brancli of Cahita. 

These tribes and their ancestors developed their civilization as best 
thej could under the skies and with the natural resources of the country. 

In the matter of food, which is the most important consideration ot 
all, the southern Mexicans were happily situated. Since the grade of 
a people's culture is measured b}^ the amount and variet}^ of artificiality 
in their daily lives, agriculture is a higher art than fishing or hunting 
or herding. How fortunate, then, were the Mexicans of old in that 
their attention was not distracted b}^ the presence of large herds of buf- 
falo or immense schools of fishes. There was in their dietar}'^ enough 
of meat and of fish, but they had the most economic grain in the 
world — maize — in some places jdelding three crops a year. Besides, 
Mexican soil is congenial to all sorts of pulse, most nitrogenous of 
plant foods; to cacao; to the banana, most economic of fruits, and to 
a variety of vegetal productions not known in the temperate zone. 
There were no plows or agricultural machinery; but there was abun- 
dance of water supply and ample means of utilizing it through irriga- 
tion canals. Could the ancient regime be restored, an interesting 
picture would be afforded of premanganic or premechanical thrift. 
There were farmers in those days such as one might see in busy Japan 
fifty years ago or yet in many parts of China, where teeming popula- 
tions are daily fed on ample though not varied fare, the product of 
human hands alone. The miller — generally the woman — ground the 
maize on a metate, or slab of lava, with a muller, rather than with a 
pestle, and cooked her cakes and bread on griddles and in the hot 
ashes, not differently from the ways of our own ancestors a few gener- 
ations removed. It was the acme, the apotheosis, of the hand epoch, 
where there were fewer comforts, perhaps, but less miser3^ (Bancroft, 
1875, ii, 242-562.) The serving of food was, like all other activities, 
conditioned on the social organization. Failing to recognize this, 
authors have read the most refined aristology into the rude but hearty 
feasting of the Mexican rulers in ante-Columbian times. For a gor- 
geous account of Montezuma's dinner the reader may consult Bancroft 
(1875, ii, 174-178), and as an antidote to this, Morgan (1881, 237-248), 
the truth doubtless lying somewhere between. 

The next anxiety of a people after appeasing hunger is to clothe 
the body artificially against heat and cold, against rain and drought, 
and against damage from without. The ancient Mexicans wore san- 
dals, which, because they had no rawhide for the soles, were woven 
or plaited ingeniously from vegetable fibei's and fastened to the feet 
differently from the Egyptian t3^pe now worn. On the feet of gods 
and of great persons the sandals are highly decorated. The limbs 
were bare. Men wore the breech clout and women short kilts or 
petticoats. The upper part of the body was protected by means of a 



ETHTSrOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. 33 

shawl or robe fastened on the left shoulder, leaving the right hand 
free. Sleeved garments were not known. The head ordinaril}^ was 
bare. In the wilder tribes men and women dressed scantily in gar- 
ments made of skins. The more advanced tribes substituted clothing 
of bark cloth, like the Hawaiian tapa, of nequen fiber, and of cotton. 
Among the most cultured tribes barbaric splendor was the rule in dress. 
Every part of the body was decked with jeweUy, feather work, and 
embroider3^ Of the priests and persons in authority, as one may see 
from the codices and sculptures, it may be truly said that Solomon in 
all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. (Bancroft, 1875, 
363-3TT.) 

After clothing comes the habitation. Indeed, a house is a suit of 
clothing or costume for a family, a clan, a ro3'al establishment, a reli- 
gious sect. Morgan (1881) holds that the great stone structures of 
Mexico now in ruins were communal houses, built on the models 
of those belonging to Indian tribes farther north. In this he is com- 
bated by those who look at them after stud3ang the religious edifices 
of the Orient. No doubt these imposing remains are only a small 
fragment of what they stand for. As a stone arrowhead picked up on 
some field was once united to shaft and foreshaft and feathering, and 
was painted with significant markings, so these stone remains are only 
insignificant relics of their former selves. Wooden buildings with 
thatched roofs and with sides plaited into diaper patterns, painted 
screens, gardens, furniture, and household utensils are all gone. The 
ancient people lived doubtless very much as the native Mexicans do 
in our day. Making allowance for intrusions by way of Spain from 
North Africa and Egypt, and b}^ way of Manila from the Orient, one 
may be helped greatl}- in restoring the former times b^^ a stud}'^ of 
modern buildings, not forgetting that the clan or gentile system of 
living prevailed in Mexico as in all other parts of America. 

The tools of the ancient stone workers were chiefly of stone. If 
there were any mason's tools of metal, they were inconsiderable. The 
Mexican lapidaries could chip, saw, bore, and polish obsidian, nephrite, 
and other gem stones, and inlay. They were also fond of and skillful 
in mosaic work, effected by carving masks and other objects in wood 
or shell, covering the surface with gum and overlajnng with scraps of 
green and other colored stones. (Oppel, 1896, 4. ) Excellent examples 
of this work have been dug from ancient pueblos in Arizona. (Fe wkes, 
1898, pi. 35.) The ancient Mexican stone masons used the pick, the 
bushing hammer, and the abrader, all of stone. They also employed 
wood for skids, levers, wedges, handles to stone tools, and for burning- 
lime. To these primitive utensils must be added that manual dexter- 
ity which comes onl}^ through generations of practice and emulation. 
The tools of fellow-craftsmen were of the same primitive character, 
and yet with these they also produced astonishing results in wood, 
shell, gold, silver, and copper. 
609a— 04 3 



34 MEXICO. 

The Mexican eiijo-ineer had no helpful beasts of burden, hence his 
countiymeii became famous in the use of their backs, an art not yet 
passed away. He had the best of ropes, tlie inclined plane, the lever, 
the wedge, the parbuckle, and a primitive tackle without pulleys. In 
certain erections a false core was built up to sustain the masonry, and 
removed when all was finished. As for his line, plummet, foot rule, 
square, and numerical standards, nothing is known; only, if his 
metric system resembled his calendar, he used a decimal scale. 

Among metrical appliances, time measures afford an excellent gauge 
of a people's progress — to mark definite portions of time, as with- 
the sandglass; to tell the time of day, to note the proper day, furnish 
materials for the chronograph, the chronometer, and the chronologist. 

The more savage tribes of Mexico marked the length of an interval 
by the fading of leaves set up in the path and the width of the angle 
traversed by a shadow. Time of day was not registered artificially 
among the wilder tribes, but in the more cultured there were devices 
that operated on the principle of the dial. Bvit the calendar of the 
Nahuatlan, Zapotecan, Totonacan, and Maj^an families was quite up to 
that of the conquerors. The year consisted of three hundred and 
sixty-five days, in two parts; three hundred and sixty da^^s, divided 
into eighteen months of twenty days each, and five intercalary days. 
Each day of the month had a proper name and a graphic symbol. 
The interpretation of these symbols has taxed the ingenuity of Mexi- 
cologists from the beginning. (Thomas, 1898; Seler, 1888.) 

In this connection, for rating the culture status of the Mexicans 
must not be overlooked the harnessing of nature's forces for work. 
The Mexicans, originally, did not use the wind for power unless it 
may have been to waft the rudest kind of craft and to winnow their 
harvests. But water was dammed up for agriculture and for fish 
ponds, floating gardens were known, canals were dug for irrigation 
and transportation, and, most wonderful of all, in Yucatan were 
innumerable water caves. The soft, porous limestone, broken up b}" 
earthquakes, acted like a sieve for the surface waters, which dissolved 
for themselves subterranean channels. There are no surface springs, 
but the roofs of the underground strepims, breaking in, formed cistern- 
like pits, with abundance of water at the bottom. These are approached 
by trails and ladders, and the}^ have been improved artificially. (Holmes, 
1895; Mercer, 1897; Thompson, 1897.) 

The woodman was not in evidence to such degree as he became on 
the north Pacific coast, but all tribes knew the plant world well, and 
within the limits of the Republic there was a great variety of economic 
species for aliment, drink and medicines, for woods, for fiber. Tim- 
ber was cut down with stone axes, split with wooden wedges, held 
together with wooden pegs and lashings. It was shaped roughly with 
adzes, and there was no lack of tools for creditable wood carving, as 
the architectural features of that substance bear witness, but drums 



ETHIfOLOGY AND AECHJEOLOGY. 35 

and furniture were also skillfully carved. The reed lent itself handily 
to a thousand clever arts. 

The textile art was well advanced in Mexico. Its coarsest products 
were the roofs of the dwellings, their ornamental walls and screens, 
and fences. Next came matting of reeds, 3^ucca, and palm strips. By 
varying the plant, the dye, and the pattern, the most pleasing effects 
were brought about. Articles of dress and utensils of housekeeping 
without number were plaited from abundant and varied material. 
Basketry, through failure of tough roots and other material, was not 
equal to that farther north; but in place of it skillful fingers reveled 
in feather work, for which nature furnished with lavish hand not only 
abundant fiber for network, but plumage birds without stint for the 
gaudy covering. 

The Mexican women could spin both with the fingers without 
mechanical help and by means of spindles, upon the manufacture of 
which much artistic skill was bestowed. They wove just as the Pima 
women of Arizona, their kindred, do even to this day, namely, sitting 
on the ground with warp almost horizontal, one end of it fastened to 
a stationary object, the other to a belt around their waists. By sway- 
ing their bodies they governed the tension. They could do plain weav- 
ing, in which the weft of different colors passes back and forth; they 
could manage diaper effects by counting warp threads at each excursion 
of the rude shuttle, or they could produce gobelin effects by weaving 
in the patterns separately. On the surface of these textiles lace work 
was effected also skillfully. It is an open question, however, whether 
the beautiful modern drawn work was of native development or 
imported from Manila in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 
Tailoring, also, in the modern sense was unknown, garments being 
made out of the whole piece. 

The question whether Mexican aboriginal culture is original or 
derived has been hotl}^ debated by those who should have known that 
it is both. The problem of native culture is like those of the geologist 
and the chemist. In order to ascribe a phenomenon to certain layers 
or substances, these first exclude foreign intrusions. In the same way 
those arts which were developed on the soil of Mexico will be more 
clearly understood by the elimination of intrusions. From the crown 
of his head to the sole of his foot — literally, from headdress to sandal — 
the modern Mexican is Hispano-Egyptian through northern Africa, 
with an overlapping of the Orient through three hundred years of 
contact with the Philippines. 

There was no potter's wheel; all vessels were being built up b}" the 
well-known processes of coiling, modeling, molding, and malleating or 
beating into shape with paddles. The art of covering with slip, paint- 
ing, adding ornaments, and burning were well understood, but glazed 
potter}?^ in ancient Mexico was not known. In the South the ware was 
far more refined in quality and ornament, that of the central region 



36 MEXICO. 

being overloaded witli modeled work. Indeed, in the ware of to-day 
a school of potters, instead of modeling as the sculptor does, molds 
the parts of an intricate piece and then lutes them together. Among 
ceramic treasures are to be noted the musical instruments. 

Gold, silver, copper, and perhaps tin were known to the cultured 
provinces. These metals are still found in the Republic abundantly, 
but to reconstruct the workshops of the goldsmith or the silversmith 
is no eas}" task. Astonishing effects may be produced in these metals, 
cold or in open fire, in the hands of clever workmen. Those who on 
a priori ground assert the knowledge of the blowpipe, the bellows, or 
the knowledge of fluxes do not remember how extremely hand}^ manj?^ 
peoples are without them. Literature concerning the metallurgists, 
their shops, their tools, their processes, and their handiwork, is most 
meager. (Penafiel, 1890.) 

In commerce and transportation the apotheosis of human backs and 
limbs was to be seen in Mexico of old, and in this day they compete 
successfully against beasts of burden and the iron horse. Mothers 
bore their children in their garments, the climate being too hot for the 
cradle board of the North. Passengers were carried on human backs 
in frames. Loads were packed and held in place both with headbands 
and breastbands. The commonest picture in some of the paintings is 
of the burden bearer, and the artist has not despised the carrying strap 
as a ground for pleasing designs. Runners were common, and relays, 
so that messages and perishable goods could be delivered quickly. 
The Mexicans were not skilled on the water. In their almost harborless 
and riverless countr}^ necessity for elaborate water craft did not exist. 
What little flotation was demanded rafts of reed and logs and dugout 
canoes supplied. In the more thriving States organized transportation, 
centers of distribution, and standards of value were established, but 
the nearest approach to money was in the shape of cacao beans, quills 
filled with gold dust, and small sheets of copper stamped with simple 
design. (Bancroft, 1875, 378-399.) 

For the communication and record of ideas the tribes of Mexico 
exhibit an interesting progression. The Sonoran branch of the 
Nahuatlan family were in this regard Indians pure and simple, with 
their spoken dialects, gesture speech, telephonic messages, painted 
robes, rock carvings, and symbolism. But the Southern families were 
far beyond that. They had not, forsooth, spelling books and printing 
presses, but they had gotten as far along as the rudest hieroglyphs of 
Egypt and Mesopotamia; certainly were as skillful as the Chinese. 
They had books much like those of eastern Asia, written on parch- 
ment or native paper in narrow pages and folded like a Japanese 
screen, and they engraved their thoughts on stone. The literature of 
the cultured Mexican tribes — that is, the artistic writing — has nearly 
all perished, but there was a professional class of scribes, and after the 
conquest they copied for their rulers many old documents and prepared 



CODICES. 



37 



new ones, some of which remain unto this day. To the decipherment 
of these and of the intricate calendar system able scholarship has been 
devoted, and there is room here merely to refer to their researches. 
(Bancroft, 1875, ii, 508.) Selersays " The supposed differences between 
Aztec hieroglyphics and Maya manuscripts do not exist." (Proc. Roy. 
Geog. Soc. in Science, 1889, xiii, 295.) 

Among these preserved picture writings are a number of sufficient 
importance to have absorbed the attention of eminent and enthusiastic 
scholars. They are called "codices," and they have been named from 
their discoverers, from their present locations, and from some histori- 
cal fact connected with them. (Bancroft, 1875, ii, 529; 1876, v. 192.) 
The word codex, or codice, is somewhat confusing in this connection, 
being made to cover also old documents in the Spanish language as 
well as paintings relating solely to the conquest. Since the appear- 
ance of Lord Kingsborough's work and others mentioned by Bancroft 
the Mexican Geographic Society, Due de Loubat, Thomas, and others 
have gi*^en to the world entire codices or parts in excellent form. 
Governments and institutions have liberally aided. Besides, the codices 
were mural inscriptions, calculiform characters on altars, monoliths, 
cartouches on ornaments, paintings on pottery, and glyphs on hard 
wood. (Starr.) 

The list of efforts at their decipherment would transcend the limit 
of this publication. The names of most of them will be associated 
with the works of Brinton, Rau, Seler, Forsteman, Maudslay, Gunckel, 
Thomas, Saville, Goodman, etc. 

Mexican and Maya codices, their locations and publishers. 



Berlin 

Baranda . 
Bodleian. 



Bologna 

Borbonicus 
Borgia 



Boturini 
Campos - 



Colombino 

Cospianus 

Corlesianus ( Mayan) , 
Dehesa , 

DelRios (3738) 

Dresden (Mayan) 



Fejervary 

Fernandez Leal 

Lienzo de Tlaxcala 

Mendoza 

Peresianus or Mexieanus II 
(Mayan). 

Porflrio Diaz 

Ramirez 

Telleriano Remensis. 



Relievo de Chiapas . 

Troano (Mayan) 

Vaticanus 



Vienna 



Location. 



Royal Library 

Museo Nacional de Mexico 

Facsimile in Bodleian Library, 
Oxford. 

Library of Scientific Institute 

Palais Bourbon, Paris 

College of the Propaganda, Rome. 



Boturini Collection 

San Juan de Cuauhtlantzinco, 

Puebla. 
Museo Nacional de Mexico 



Roj'al Museum, Madrid 

Museo Nacional de Mexico. 
Vatican Library 

Royal Library, Dresden 



Possession of M. F., Hungary. 
Mexico 

Museo Nacional de M(5xieo. . . 

Bodleian Library, Oxford 

National Library, Paris 



Museo Nacional de M(5xico. 



National Library, Paris 

Museo Nacional de MiJxico. 
Madrid 

Vatican Library, Rome 



Imperial Library . 



Published in- 



Kingsborough, ii. 
Chavero, 1892. 
Kingsborough, i, ii. 

Kingsborough, ii; Due de Loubat. 
Due de Loubat. 

Kingsborough, iii, 66; Due de Lou- 
bat. 
Kingsborough, i. 
Starr, 1898. 

Antiguedades Mexicanas. 

Due de Loubat. 

Madrid. 

Antigiiedades Mexicanas. 

Due de Loubat. 

Kingsborough, iii; Forstemann, 

1880. 
Kingsborough, iii. 
Peiiafiel. 

Antiguedades Mexicanas. 
Kingsborough, i, v, vi. 
Archives Paleographiques, Paris, 

1869, i. 
Antiguedades Mexicanas. 

Kingsborough, i, v, vi; Due de 

Loubat. 
Antigiiedades Mexicanas. 
Brasseur, 1869; Thomas, 1882. 
Kingsborough, ii, iii, v, vi; Due de 

Loubat. 
Kingsborough, ii. 



38 MEXICO. 

The social organization of the aboriginals in Mexico is one of the 
most excellent fields of research on account of the perspective which 
it presents. Here, in this limited area, which one may traverse in a 
summer vacation, are to be seen every grade and variety of the gentile 
system. On one extreme is the well-known mother rule, where 
descent is in the female line and there is little of private property or 
privilege; on the other is the picture of a great military confederacy 
of tribes, wherein father-right prevailed, where officers were elective, 
and a council of delegates from each tribe was charged with all affairs 
of state. Into this truly American social order it was easy for the 
early Spanish authors to read their own system and to use such terms 
as king, prince, general, and so on, but to the careful student the 
organization and functioning of society are explicable through a wider 
study of various peoples on the Western Hemisphere. Besides, there 
were, as has been pointed out, several linguistic families in Mexico, 
who were as wide apart as Aryans and Magyars in Austria-Hungary; 
but even these had their agreements and treaties according to the plan 
of democracies. (Bandelier, 1880, with rich addition of footnotes.) 
Confirmatory of the thoroughly American gentile system of govern- 
ment and social order in Mexico are the facts relating to the holding 
of real estate. It is not necessary to appeal to the tribes north of the 
Tropic of Cancer; in the more highl}^ cultured tribes, as Bandelier 
shows with great erudition (1878), no man owned any real estate, no 
office owned land, all government land was independent of the rulers, 
conquest was never followed by partition of land, the notion of owner- 
ship in fee, of sale, barter, conveyance, or alienation was undreamed of. 

The Southern Confederacies had not literall}^ beaten their swords 
into plowshares, but they had converted the hunting implements, 
weapons, and devices, with many improvements, into the apparatus of 
war. 

The organization of the army was not different essentially from 
that of their civil government. As in the Old World so in the New, 
there were storm centers where clouds of war met and spent their 
iury. The vallej^ of Mexico was one of these; hence the Nahuatlan 
tribes attained the highest point of military discipline of the New 
World. But their weapons were only bows and arrows, darts, throw- 
ing sticks (atlatl), javelins, and spears, for piercing; slings and clubs 
for striking; and the most murderous club, lined on either side with 
spalls of volcanic glass, for slashing. For defense they had shields, 
cotton armor, and wooden helmets, like those of the Thlinkit warriors 
in recent times. As is customary among the northern Indians, the 
Mexican soldiers decked their military equipments with gorgeous 
featherwork. 

The organization of the army, the tactics, the strategy, the military 
engineering, the fortified places of the more civilized tribes, doubt- 



ETHNOLOGY AND AKCHiEOLOGY. 39 

less were of a higher order than the guerilla methods of the United 
States tribes of two hundred years ago. On the other hand, they 
err who would read into these the vocabularj^ of European war meth- 
ods of the times. Bandelier says (1877, 161): "The Mexicans were 
not subject to a desj)otical power, but organized after the principles 
of a barbarous but free military democracy." 

In the comparative sense, religion consists in what men think of a 
spirit world and what they do in consequence; the former is their 
creed, the latter their cult or worship. Creed has to do chiefly with 
the personnel and physiography of the spirit world, and it will be noted 
that in some measure that world is the reflection of this. Its supernal 
beings are organized as a societ}^ and their motives as well as their 
conduct have reference to human beings. 

In cult, human society is organized, buildings are erected, costumes 
are worn, food is eaten, days are observed, and certain austerities 
practiced, all with reference to beings unseen to mortal eyes, but cog- 
nizable by a special sense. The most refined art and music and the 
best of everything go to the gods. 

On this definition the Mexican religion had its creed and its cult, 
its heaven and its pantheon, as well as its temples, altars, and priest- 
hood; its mythology and worship. 

The northern or pueblo tribes of Mexico must be studied in the light 
of the pueblo tribes of Arizona, worked out by members of the Bureau 
of American Ethnology. Its wild tribes lived near to their unseen 
world like their brethren of the north. We are here concerned with 
the religion of the southern families. Bancroft (1875, iii) devotes five 
hundred pages to the religion of the Pacific coast tribes; the larger 
part is given to the topic here considered. On every monument, 
sculptured slab, decorated wall or vase, the spirit world is manifested. 
It is a Mexican Pantheon. The warrior god is supreme; the priests are 
ministers in a church militant. Sacrifice, incense, pomp in worship, 
revolting rites, prolonged rituals, obtrude themselves and override 
industry and art. 

The aesthetic side of Mexican life in aboriginal times covered a wide 
area, but nowhere reached an enlightened stage. There were public 
fetes and games, but there was no drama per se. There were social 
rules or fine art of behavior — in the open, in the family, at the feast, 
every one had a place; but behavior where there was so little furniture 
scarcely rose to etiquette. There was fine art of dress and its acces- 
sories, but not far above that of the Mandan Indians. Vocal music 
was singing in unison, and there are those who say that the Mexicans 
had a scale of notes which can be reproduced on an organ with fixed 
pipes, but this is denied. The musical instruments of the Mexicans 
were flageolets and flutes of wood, bone, and potter^^ Whistles of 
grotesque shapes, reed instruments of unique form, drums of wood, 



40 MEXICO. 

(teponaztli), and with heads of membrane (huehuetl), rattles (ajacaxtli), 
and bells (yotl), but the existence of stringed instruments is doubtful. 
In some of the sculptures students see representations of this class, 
but others as clearly witness the notched rattle. (Seler, 1898.) 

As for the graphic and glyphic art, sculpture, and architecture, the 
student can not fail to note everywhere the sense of the beautiful 
struggling to help symbolism and to disengage itself from its more 
childish forms. Unity, proportion, symmetry are all there, and some 
of the world's standard forms have been reached. One well qualified 
to judge has said: "Most of the motives emplo3^ed in embellishment 
have their origin in religion; their use was first significant and second 
esthetic. * * ■" All the sculptor's art is crude as compared with 
civilized art, but it is virile and full of promise of higher achievement, 
* * * There is lack of perspective and a mixing up of sizes, and 
the general style of presentation is suggestive of that of the ancient 
Egyptians." '(Holmes, 1895, 52.) 

No other part of the Western Hemisphere has such abundance and 
variet}^ of attractions for the arch^ologist as the territory of the 
Republic of Mexico. In order to comprehend this area one must study 
the pyramidal mounds of the Mississippi Valley; the immense log 
buildings, sculptures, and totem posts of the north Pacific coast; the 
massive w^alls and composite arrangement of the pueblos; the infinite 
variety of geometric patterns and designs on basketry; not neglect- 
ing, finally, the full-costumed Crow warrior of Montana, wearing 
his decorated breech clout and moccasins, and gorgeous headdress of 
eagle plumes, which spans his head like a huge rainbow and descends 
to the ground in a long train. It is not necessary to maintain that the 
sculptors of southern Mexico were the immediate blood kindred and 
colinguists of all these widely scattered tribes. Only they use the 
same alphabet and art motives. The Mexicans were mound builders, 
totem carvers, pueblo designers, fretwork weavers, and costumers in 
stone, the material which, more than all others combined, evoked the 
virile qualities of early races. 

Regarding the antiquities of Mexico, the present territory may be 
further subdivided into (1) the Mayan province, east from Tehuan- 
tepec, including Yucatan, belonging, perhaps, to Central America; 
(2) the Nahuan-Zapotecan province, reaching from Quemada, in Zaca- 
tecas, southward to Tehuantepec, revealing an advanced and some- 
what mixed culture; (3) the Pueblo province, with its compound, 
storied houses and smooth, coiled pottery, which is not bounded 
northward by the boundary line, but reaches far into the United 
States; (4) the wild province, home of cliff dwellers and devoid of 
architecture and pottery. The antiquities of Mexico do not end with 
the boundaries of the Republic. At the north, the Casas Grandes, in 
western Chihuahua, on Casas Grandes River, is an immense adobe 



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ETHNOLOGY AND ARCHJSOLOGY. 41 

structure, allying itself with the present and ancient pueblos of Ari- 
zona and New Mexico. Moreover, there were throughout the same 
region and southward natural and artificial cave dwellings. (Lumholtz, 
1898.) At the southeast, Mexico passes insensibly from the Mayan 
culture of Yucatan and Chiapas into the antiquities of Guatemala. 

The mural remains of the Republic are comprised within narrow 
limits, extending from the sixteenth to the twenty-second parallel, 
from Soconusco to Quemada. Yet in this contracted area are to be 
found more structures of stone than in all America besides. 

Of this architecture there are held to have been several schools. 
Indeed, this should be looked for, since, in addition to the natural gates 
or opportunities opened by the several environments, there were on 
this territory, in rivalry, several linguistic families. In Yucatan and 
Tabasco was the Mayan famil}^ with an outlying branch in northern 
Veracruz. Next to them, westward, were the Zapotecan and the 
Zoquean f amih^, and in a circle about the Cit}^ of Mexico were Nahuatlan, 
Totonacan, Otomian, and Tarascan tribes. (Brinton, 1891, 128-162.) 

Every variety of material enters into the permanent building, to wit, 
the plain dirt heap, the modeled dirt heap or mass; even mountains 
were remodeled; sun-dried clay, either as bricks or in larger masses; 
stone and clay or other bonding material, mixed in rubble, used in vast 
quantities; walls faced with uncut stone, which in some localities was 
supplied by nature in good form; cut stone in walls laid up without 
adhesive material; stone walls laid in clay, mortar, and cement;" carved 
architectural features; relief carvings; sculptures in the round. As 
for the adhesive substances, besides clay and other natural cements, 
lime mortar has been mentioned and the possibility of its existence 
denied, but caustic lime was not bej^ond the Mexican builders, since 
burnt shells occur universally as a degraissant in American pottery. 
There was no lack of durable wood to serve as lintels to doors and to 
support ceilings. This material, doubtless, was used for doors, parti- 
tions, screens, and interior decorations, and was cut, hewn, and carved 
with great skill. (Holmes, 1895, 25.) 

The architecture was oversolid, and consisted of rough masses of dirt 
and rude masonry, faced with smoothed cut stone. Layard encountered 
just this combination in excavating Nineveh. A recent investigator 
calls attention to the lack of the best elements of construction. (Holmes, 
1895, 27-30.) The arch and the dome were unknown. Long pen- 
tagonal openings, with horizontal bases, called false arches, were the 
best that the architects could do. On this overmassive structure there 
was an equally barbaric excess of decoration — false fronts, roof combs, 
cornices, mosaic and stucco work. One imposing feature is the terrace 
and stairway presented in endless variety, affording not only access to 
superior structures, but sitting room or grand stand for the laity. 

The two central features about which all plazas, paved ways, banks 



•42 MEXICO. 

of earth, and walls or parapets cluster are the pyramid and the squared 
structure, the mound and the loo- house made in stone. Of the former, 
the function is largely outside; of the latter, owing to the solidit}^ of 
the walls, it is only partly inside. The pyramid ma}'^ have additions 
interior and inferior, l^utits attractive parts are exterior and superior. 
The built-up and squared structure lends all its parts, indeed, to the 
architect, the modeler, and the sculptor, but it also was to be gazed at 
from without. The pja^amid was divided into stories b}^ placing a 
series of truncated p3a'amids one above another and by cutting out 
terraces from a single form. 

In the most important remains there is such evident relationship 
between structure and structure as to prove that one purpose runs 
through the whole. And while some great buildings give evidence of 
accretions, others, saj^s Holmes (1895, 23) — for example, the palace at 
Uxmal and thecastillo at Chichen — show that when the building began 
the whole plan, to the minutest detail, had been thought out. Very few 
of the buildings are accurately oriented, as that term is commonly 
understood. Certainl}^ the modern style of lajdng off cities in rectangles 
was as little known in Mexico as among the European contemporaries. 

Their purposes are easily harmonized with the environment, the kin- 
ship S3^stem, and the culture system of the peoples. Some of them are 
forts, to defend whatever was in them. Some of them were religious, 
with their court of the women, court of the laity, and the other socie- 
ties, court of the society and pathway of the priests to a kind of 
shrine or holy of holies. If only on some bright, sunn}" day the pageant 
could return, what a picturesque sight one of those temple structures 
would aiford, having every terrace and stairway filled with gay cos- 
tumes, to which gold and silver and precious stones, the efflorescence of 
the fields, and the plumage of birds lent theii- willing service. 

For the first time the sites of archgeological remains in Mexico are 
here codified in the alphabetic order of States. Such a provisional 
list will serve future investigators as a starting point for additions and 
corrections. A distinction should be made between relics and remains. 
The former are movable and personal, and can not always be relied on 
for locations, but remains are stationary and are useful on the spot. 
The}" should be guarded with the greatest care both b}^ the Govern- 
ment and by public spirit against destruction or removal. 

ANCIENT REMAINS IN MEXICO. 

Aguascalientes: No remains reported. 

Baja California: Rock laaintings and inscriptions. 

Campeche: Paved roads, or calzadas; terra-cotta idols, etc. 

Chiapas: 

Palenque, ancient city of vast extent, Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895; Maudslay, 
1897. 

Lorillard City, ruins resembling Palenque, Charnay, 1887. 

Ococingo, groups of ruins, sculptures, hieroglyphs. 



ANCIENT EEMAINS. 43 

Chihuahua: Eio des Casus, adobe pueblos, Casas Grandes, Thomas, 1899. 

COAHUILA : 

ASan Lorenzo, rock paintings, mummies, relics. 
San Martin, ruins and pottery. 
Colima: No remains reported. 

DURANGO: 

Bolson, rock paintings and carvings, mummies. 

La Brena, caves yielding relics; between Suchil Valley and Chalchihuites 
Chichimec remains. ' 

Guanajuato: Only cave dwellings and relics. 
Guerrero: Foundations, remains of settlements. 

Uina, ruins and burial places. 

Tlapa, tombs called Teteles. 
Hidalgo: Tula, pyramid, sculptures, idols, relics, Charnay, 1887; Penafiel 1890 
Jalisco: Artificialized hills. ' 

L. Chapala, vestiges of ancient settlements and pottery, Starr, 1897 
Mexico: 

Actopayi, pottery relics. 
Ahuehuepa, statue bearing hieroglyphics. 

L. Chaico, causeways across the lake; traces of ancient city on Xico Island- 
sculptures on Misquique Island; sculptures at Xochimilco; carved cylindrical 
stones at Tlahuac; ancient town of Culhuacan; idols, heads, fallen pyramids 
at llalmanalco. 
Chapultepec, carvings on cliffs. 
Malinalco, ancient wood carvings. 

Mexico City, or Tenodman. In the city all temples, etc., have been razed- 
calendar stone, sacrificial stone, statue of Coatlicne, sculptures at Tlatelulco' 
rums of fortified hill at Tenango, Penafiel, 1890; Holmes, 1897. 
Mecamecan, rock pyramid, carved. 
Navajas, obsidian mines. 
Ozumha, carved blocks of stone. 
Remedios, terraced, stone-faced hill. 
Tacuba, ruins, pyramids of sun-dried bricks. 

Tezcuco, causeway at Chapingo; idols, pottery, relics at Contador; terraced hill 
and aqueduct at Tetzcutzinco (Reyes, 1888); stone wall in mortar at Hueiutla- 
rums ot ancient city at Teotihuacan, immense pyramids and paved way' 
Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1897; Penafiel, 1899. 
Otumba, ruins at Tulacingo and San Miguel. 
Xonacatepec, stone masks, carved circular stone. 
Yahualua, tombs with stone images, northward. 
Tyupilco, buildings of thin blocks of stone. 
Zacualpan, stone masks and relics. 
Michoacan: Opals and other gems, and remains at Jiquilpdn; small mounds at 
Irimbo; rock carvings on Aniche Island; ancient capital of Tarascos at Zint- 
zuntzan, L. Patzcuaro, Leon, 1888-1890. 
Morelos: 

Xoc/umZco terraced hill, paved roads, galleries, hill covered with masonry, sum- 
mit platform, fine sculptures, Penafiel, 1890, ch. viii. 

Cuernavaca, figures carved on bowlders; temple pyramid 

Tepoztlan, Saville, 1896; Seler, 1898. 
NuEVA Leon: No antiquities reported. 
Oajaca: 

'^tZd!"l'8r""-''"?/; '*""' '''''''''''^ ™^'^^' -^derground tombs, pottery, 
Lstrada, 1892; rums of Quiengola, 1896. 



44 MEXICO. 

Oajaca — Continued. 

Magdalena, statue of Zapotec prophet, Wixepecocha. 

Petapa, caves with painted walls. 

Loulhuja, mound and hieroglyphics. 

ChiJiuiftan, ancient bridge. 

Guatulcu, ruins of ancient city. 

Tlacohda, mound of earth. 

Qwiyechapa, ruined fortress. 

Etla, underground tombs, images. 

Penoles, skull preserved by lime; pyramid at Tepantepec, tombs at Teotitlan. 

Quilapan, mounds everywhere. 

Monte Albdn, fortified holy place, subterranean chambers, pyramid, liieroglyphics, 
etc.. Holmes, 1897. 

Zachila, mounds, burnt bricks, walls, statues; Tombs of Xoxo (Saville, 1899). 

MHla, finest ruin in the State and one of the grandest in Mexico, Charnay, 1867; 
Peilafiel, 1890; Holmes, 1897. 

Quietepec, hill covered with ruins, platforms, terrace walls, pyramid; atTuxtepec, 
mound 63 feet high. 

Hualmapam, sculptures in low relief, pottery, gold objects. 

YanghiUan, sculptured human figures. 
Puebla: 

Tehuacan, ruins of stone structures. 

Chila, pyramid of hewn stone, cement covering, stairway. 

Tepiaca, sculptured head and slabs. 

Tepixe, storied pyramid, hewn stone, lime mortar. 

San Cristobal, storied pyramid, stairway, graded way. 

Cholula, storied pyramid, 1,440 feet square, 200 feet high. 

ChalcMcomula, storied pyramid with stairs. 

Quatulliquelchula, relief; ruins at San Pablo. 

QUERETAKO : 

Queretaro City, fortified hills, pyramids, w^orks. 

Fueblita, stone walls, sculptures, mounds. 

Ranas, forts, pyramids with stairs, burial mounds. 

Toluquilla, ancient city and fort. Reyes, 1881. 

San Juan, mound containing idols. 
San Luis Potosi: No remains reported. 
Sinaloa: Vestiges of ruins at Mazatlan. 
Sonoka: Ruins at Babiacori; grottos at Sohuaripa. 
Tamaulipas : 

Eticarnacion, stone idol. 

Cramelote Creek, mounds, dressed stone, images, pottery. 

Salt Lake, pyramidal mounds, stone faced, with steps. 

Zopila, mounds faced with stone, carved stones, pottery. 

Tampico, idols of basalt, carvings, pottery. 
Tlaxcala: 

Malinche, walls, pyramids, stone images. 

San Pablo, kneeling figure in stone 

Natividad, terraced hill, ruins,' standing stones, relics. 

Cacaxtlan, fort, ditches, underground ways. 

Tlaxcala, sculptures, pottery, stone bridges, brick parapets, obelisk at Pueblo de 
los Reyes, wall on frontier of State. 

Tizatlan, ruins, called Xicotencatl. 
Veracruz: 

Veracruz City, ports, pyramids, foundations, graves, west of the city, in abun- 
dance, fc 



AJ^CIENT EEMAmS. 45 

Veraceuz— Continued. 

Sacrifidos I, temple, sepulcher, relics. 
Caxapa, ruined city, colossal head. 
Onzaba, sculptured yokes, carvings, grotto. 
Jalapa, serpent carved in rock. 
Puente Nadonal, storied pyramid, with stairs. 
Cordoba, line of forts. 

Ceutla, terraced pyramid faced with hewn stone, forts 
Huatusco, pyramid with broad stairway, forts. 
Mirador, baths and rock inscriptions. 
Zacuapdn, pyramid, plaza, terraced walls. 
Tlacotepec, forts and aqueduct. 
Comoquitla, fort, plastered pyramids, idols, relics. 
Calcahualco, forts, pyramids, columns. 
Misantla, pyramids of hewn stone pavements, ruins 
Mancingo, walls of hewn stone, subterranean shrines 
Papantla, terraced storied pyramid; other pyramids at Mapilca ranch 
Tusapan, pyramid with stairs, building on top. 
Metlaltoijuca, pyramids of hewn stone, pavements. 
Panuco, statues and relics. 
San Nicolas, oven-like chamber, ruins. 
Yucatan: 

l^rnal immense Maya ruins; also pyramids, sculptures, and statues near Uxma, 

■ l^:Zlf. '^^^^' ''-''' ^^°^--^' ^-^^' ^°^P- Charly!^ ,88^;: 

A-«^a/,, group of 16 structures, storied buildings, sculptures, arches- southeast 

from Kabah rmns at Sanacte, Xampon, Chack, Sabacehe. 
Zayi and Lahna, Charnay, 1887; Thompson, 1897b 

Sf 'rf st Sat "f n?"'' ™«"' "'"^ ^"' P^^^*^"^^- Thompson, 1898. 
lelcax, ruins at Sacacal, Ticum, Santa Maria, and Chacchob 

ioZ^t^n, caves, underground water supply. Mercer, 1897; Thompson 1897a 

^M anrf ilfam, remains of cities. ^J^^pfeon, i»j/a. 

Chkhen Itza, ruined city and forts, sculptures; near-by ruins at Tinum Esnit. 
Xocen, Sitax, Coba. .Charnay, 1887; Holmes, 1895; Mandslav "97 ^ ' 

i^cu^, pyramidal mounds, ruins. Charnay 1887 ^^laj, i«y7. 

Mayapan, mounds sculptures, remains of ancient Maya capital. 

Merida, on rums of ancient city of Tahoo. 

Ake, ruins of rude architecture. Charnay 1887 

Izamal pyramids, sculptures. Charnay,' 1887; Holmes, 1895. 

Bolondien wells (cenotes), sculptures. 

Lahphak, grand Maya ruin. 

luloom., walled town. Holmes, 1895. 

Cozumel, buildings and cisterns Ho1mP« isq(^ t? • i . r. • 

a|o^*»ta„, Cape Catoche. Yalahao. E„al. Mon.e Ouyo, Rio Lagarto, Port 



46 MEXICO. 

In order to niuke this brief summary v^aluable as a guide to students 
in Mexican archteology and ethnology, a list of modern works is 
appended « which have been printed since H. H. Bancroft's Native 
Races of the Pacific States (1874-75) and Justin Winsor's Narrative 
and Critical History of America (1889) appeared. For earlier author- 
ities the reader can not overlook Bandelier's footnotes and that won- 
derful result of patience and accuracj^, Sabin's catalogue of works 
relating to America. In the text of this article the titles here given 
are referred to by dates, following the plan of Dr. C. S. Minot. 

« See Chapter XX, page 423, for list. 



CHAPTER IV. 

GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTIONAL ORGANIZATION— CITIZEN- 
SHIP— RIGHTS OF FOREIGNERS— GUARANTEES— ARMY AND 

NAVY. 

Governriient. — The Constitution now in force in Mexico, originally 
promulgated Februar};^ 5, 1857, and subsequently amended, declares 
that the Mexican Republic is established under the representative, 
democratic, and federal form of government, composed of States free 
and sovereign in everything relating to their internal administration, 
but united in one single federation in accordance with the principles 
set forth in said Constitution. The Supreme Government is divided 
into three coordinate branches, viz, Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. 

Legislative power. — The legislative power of the nation is vested in 
a general Congress, consisting of two Chambers, the Deputies and the 
Senate. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of representatives of 
the nation elected every two years by the Mexican citizens and in the 
proportion of one Deputy for every 40,000 inhabitants, or fraction 
over 20,000, the term of service being two years, an alternate number 
being elected for each Deputy. 

The requisite qualifications to be a Deputy are: To be a Mexican 
citizen in the full exercise of his rights, 25 years of age, a resident of 
the State or Territory where chosen, and not to belong to the eccle- 
siastical state. In 1897 there were 227 members in the Chamber of 
Deputies. 

The Senate consists of two Senators for each State and the Federal 
District, chosen in the same manner as Deputies, and subject to the 
same limitations as to citizenship, residence, and civil status, but the 
age limit is 30 years, and the term of service four, half the Senate 
being renewed every two years. 

Federal officeholders receiving a salary are ineligible for election to 
either Chamber. 

Congress. — The Congress has two ordinary sessions annually — the 
first, which may be extended thirty days, beginning on September 16 
and ending on December 15, and the second may be prorogued for 
fifteen days, convening on the 1st of April and adjourning on the last 
day of May. 

During the recesses of Congress a permanent committee, with 
Imiited legislative functions, sits, composed of 29 members, 15 being 

47 



48 MEXICO. 

Deputies and 1-i Senators, appointed by the respective Chambers on 
the eve of adjournment. The duties of this committee are: To give 
assent to the calling out of the National Guard for use beyond the 
limits of their respective States and Territories; to call, on their own 
motion or at the instance of the President, extra sessions of either or 
both Chambers; to confirm certain Executive nominations; to admin- 
ister the oath to the President and Justices of the Supreme Court; to 
report on all matters unacted on by the previous Congress, so that the 
next may have business to take up immediatel}^ upon convening. 

Executive 2)0wer. — The Executive power is lodged in a single indi- 
vidual, known as the "President of the United Mexican States." 

The President is elected indirectly by electors chosen by the people. 
His term of office is four j^ears, commencing on the 1st day of Decem- 
ber after election. By an amendment to the Constitution, under date 
of December 20, 1890, he may be reelected indefinitely. Temporary 
vacancies in the Presidencj^ are filled by the person serving as Sec- 
retary^ of State, while in case of death or permanent disability a pro- 
visional President is elected b}^ Congress, who discharges the office 
until one is elected by the people. 

Following are the qualifications requisite for President: 

(1) To be a native-born Mexican citizen, in the full exercise of his 
rights. 

(2) To be 35 years of age. 

(3) To not belong to any ecclesiastical order. 

(4) To be a resident of the countrj^ at the time of election. 
Cabinet.-^ThQ President is assisted in the discharge of his duties by 

a Cabinet, consisting of seven Secretaries, heads of the Departments 
of Foreign Relations; Finance and Public Credit; Communications 
and Public Works; Promotion, Colonization, and Industry; Interior; 
Justice and Public Instruction; War and the Navy. 

Cabinet officers must be native-born Mexican citizens, and at least 
25 years of age. All Executive regulations, decrees, and orders must 
be countersigned by the head of the department to which they refer, 
otherwise they are inoperative. 

Salaries. — The salary of the President is $50,000 per annum, and of 
the Cabinet officers $15,000. 

Judicial i?oiL)er. — The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court 
of Justice and the district and circuit courts. There are three circuit 
and thirty-two district coi.rts. The Supreme Court of Justice is com- 
posed of eleven "ministros," or justices, four alternate justices, an 
Attorney-General, and a public prosecutor. Their term of office is 
six years, and they are elected by the people indirectl3^ in the same 
manner as Deputies and Senators. The qualifications required are to 
be learned in the law, in the judgment of the electors; to be at least 36 
years of age, and to be Mexican citizens in the full exercise of their 
rights. 



state's goveknment. 49 

Federal courts have jurisdiction — 

(1) In all cases arising from the enforcement and application of Fed- 
eral laws, save when such application affects only private interests, in 
which case the ordinary courts of the States, Federal District, and 
Territories shall be competent to assume jurisdiction. 

(2) In admiralty cases. 

(3) In cases to which the Federation is a party. 

(4) In cases arising between two or more States. 

(5) In cases arising between a State and one or more citizens of 
another, or between two or more States. 

(6) In civil or criminal cases arising from treaties concluded with 
foreign powers. 

(7) In cases affecting diplomatic and consular agents. 

The Supreme Court of Justice has original jurisdiction in all cases 
arising between two States, and in those wherein the Union is a party. 
This court must also settle all controversies arising among the Federal 
courts, between these and the State Courts, or between the courts of 
two States. The Supreme Court is also the court of last resort in all 
other cases here mentioned. 

The jurisdiction of the Federal courts extends also to all cases grow- 
ing out of (1) laws or acts of an}^ authority infringing on individual 
rights; (2) laws or acts of the Federal authority violating or limiting 
the sovereignty of the States; (3) laws or acts of the latter encroaching 
on the Federal authority. 

The salary of Supreme Court justices is S5,000 and of circuit and 
district judges $4,000 a year. 

State's government. — As provided by the Federal Constitution, the 
interior government of the States is republican, representative, and 
popular, and is divided into the same branches as the General Govern- 
ment. 

1. The legislative power in the large majority of the States is vested 
in a single representative body called a congress, the members of 
which are called deputies, and are in most States elected indirectly b}^ 
the people, serving two years. 

2. The executive power is lodged in a governor, elected, almost 
without exception, b}' indirect vote of the people, and serving for four 
years. 

3. The judicial power in the greater number of States resides in a 
supreme court of justice and inferior courts and judges. 

The States are divided politically, as a rule, into districts governed 
by 'Si jefe politico, or a prefect. The minor divisions are municipalities, 
the local authority being an ayuntainieiito., cori'esponding to the town 
council in the United States of America. Each State is bound to 
deliver, without delay, criminals from other States to the authority 
demanding them. 

509a— 04 4 



50 MEXICO. 

.Luiiitations. — B}' the Federal Constitution tlie States are prohibited 
from — 

(1) Conchiding- any alliance, treat}^, or league with another State or 
foreign powers, except the league which may be formed between 
frontier States for offensive or defensive warfare against savages. 

(2) Issuing letters of marque or reprisal. 

(3) Coining mone}", issuing paper money, stamps, or stamped paper. 

(4) Obstructing the transit of persons or goods crossing its territory. 

(5) Prohibiting or molesting, either directl}^ or indirectly, the 
entrance or exit to or from its territory of national or foreign 
merchandise. 

(6) Obstructing the circulation or consumption of national or for- 
eign goods by means of imports or taxes that ma}^ be exacted through 
local custom-houses, hy requiring the inspector of I'egistration of 
packages, or b}^ requiring the documentation to accompany the 
merchandise. 

(7) Decreeing or maintaining in force laws or fiscal decrees which 
may cause differences of taxes or requisites, b}" reason of the source of 
national or foreign merchandise, whether these differences be estab- 
lished in regard to a like production in that localitj^ or on account of 
like production from different sources. 

Nor can they, without the consent of the Congress of the Union — 

(1) Establish tonnage or any other port dues, nor impose burdens 
or duties upon imports or exports. 

(2) Maintain at an}^ time a standing army or ships of war. 

(3) Make war by themselves on any foreign power, save in cases of 
invasion or of danger so imminent as to admit of no delay, in which 
cases they must immediatel}^ report to the President of the Republic. 

Powers of the Federation.. — It is the exclusive faculty of the federa- 
tion to obstruct merchandise, imported or exported, or which passes 
in transit through the national territor}^, likewise to regulate at all 
times, and even to prohibit for reasons of policy and securit}^, the cir- 
culation within the Republic of all merchandise from whatever source; 
but the said federation can not establish or decree in the District or 
Federal Territories the taxes and law^s expressed as regard the States. 
The Federal District and the Territories are, as in the United States 
of America, under the control and jurisdiction of the Federal Govern- 
ment, although the local authorities are elected b}^ the people, as are 
Deputies and Senators to the National Congress. The population 
necessary to ' utitle a Territor}^ to statehood is 120,000 inhabitants at 
least. 

CONSTITUTION. 

The Mexican Constitution recognizes that the rights of man are the 
foundation and the end of social institutions, and consequently every- 
one is bound to respect and give support to the guarantees granted by 



PROHIBITIONS. 51 

it; that the national sovereignty^ is essentially and originallj' vested in 
the people; that all public authorit}^ emanates from the people and has 
been instituted for the good of the people; that the people have, at 
any time, the inalienable right of altering or modifjang the form of 
government; and exercises its sovereignty^ through the national and 
State governments as prescribed by the Federal Constitution and the 
constitutions of the several States, the latter constitutions in no case 
whatever being allowed to obstruct the provisions of the Federal 
compact. 

Coiutltutional rights. — All persons born within the territory of the 
Republic are free, and slaves become free, and are under the protection 
of the law upon entering the country. Education is free, except as 
regards the exercise of certain professions regulated li}- the laws. Free- 
dom to exercise the liberal professions, freedom of thought and of the 
press, are guaranteed, the latter with the restrictions imposed b}'' the 
rights of others, peace and public morality. The rights of petition 
and of peaceful organization are recognized. The right to own and 
carr}^ arms for lawful self-defense and protection is also recognized, 
subject, however, to the restrictions of the law; also the right to freely 
enter, leave, and travel over the Republic and to change one's residence, 
without passport or any similar document, subject, -however, to the 
judicial or administrative authority in cases of criminal or civil respon- 
sibilit}^. 

The inviolabilit}'- of correspondence circulating through the mails is 
recognized, the infractors being severely punished. Private property 
can not be occupied without the consent of its owner, except in cases 
of need for public service, an indemnification having been previously 
paid, as prescribed by law. The quartering of soldiers, in time of peace, 
upon the propert}^ of individuals is forbidden, as well as in time of 
war, save under the regulations established by law. 

Prohihitions. — Titles of nobilit}^, hereditar}^ honors, and preroga- 
tives are not recognized, nor is the authority or judgment of special 
laws or privileged courts. Ex post facto laws and the conclusion of 
treaties for the extradition of political offenders, also such treaties or 
agreements as shall in an}^ manner alter the rights and guarantees 
accorded to men and citizens by the Constitution are expressl}^ pro- 
hibited, as well as the right of search without a warrant issued by 
competent authorit3^ 

Imprisonment for debt of a purel}^ civil nature is abolished. Vio- 
lent measures in the support of individual rights are iM;;!>hibited, as the 
administration of justice by the courts is done gratuitously. Arrest, 
except for offenses meriting corporal punishment, is prohibited, as is 
also detention without trial for a longer period than three days, unless 
justified as prescribed \>y law. The authorities are empowered to 
punish severely any ill treatment inflicted upon prisoners, either at the 



52 MEXICO. 

time of arrest or while imprisoned, as well as any other abuses. The 
rights of the accused are guaranteed, the application of penalties other 
than those purel}' correctional being limited exclusivelj^ to the judicial 
authorit}^ Mutilation, branding, whipping, clubbing, torture, exces- 
siv^e fines, confiscation of property, and anj^ other form of infamous 
punishment is prohibited. The death penalt}^ is limited to the crimes 
of high treason during a foreign war, highway robbery, arson, parri- 
cide, willful murder, high military crimes, and piracy, as provided 
by law. 

No civil or ecclesiastical corporations of an 3^ description are per- 
mitted to acquire or manage landed estates, with the exception of the 
buildings directly devoted to the service or objects of the institution, 
nor are religious institutions permitted to acquire landed estates or 
the capital invested thereon, except as prescribed by law. 

Monopolies of all descriptions, under pretext of industrial protec- 
tion, are prohibited, excepting the Government monopolies of coinage 
and the postal service, and the limited privileges granted by law to 
patentees of any useful invention. 

SiLSpension of the constitutional guarantees. — The President, with 
the concurrence of his Cabinet and the approval of Congress, or, during 
its recess, the Congressional Permanent Committee, may suspend all 
constitutional guarantees in case of invasion, grave internal disorder, 
or serious disturbance endangering the State, but onh^ for a limited 
period and by means of general orders; such suspension, however, 
according to the law, not to affect individuals. 

CITIZENSHIP. 

Section II of the Constitution declares that Mexican citizens are 

(1) all persons born in the countr}", or abroad, of Mexican parents; 

(2) all foreigners naturalized under the laws of the federation; (3) all 
foreigners acquiring real estate in the Republic or begetting children 
by Mexican mothers, unless distinct claim of citizenship elsewhere is 
avowed in due legal form. It is the duty of eveiy Mexican to defend 
the independence, territory, honor, rights, and interests of the country, 
and to contribute to the general expenses, both of the federation and 
of the State where he resides, as prescribed by law. 

Rights of citizens. — Citizens of the Republic are those who, besides 
being Mexicans, are over 18 years of age, if married, or 21, if unmar- 
ried, and possess honest means of livelihood. Their prerogatives are, 
the right to vote in the popular elections; to be elected by vote to all 
the charges, posts, and commissions for which the}'^ are legally quali- 
fied; to organize for the purpose of treating of the political afl'airs of 
the countr}^; to enter either the general army or the national guard, 
in order to defend the Repviblic and its institutions, and to exercise 
the right of petition in all matters. 



ALIENS. 53 

Duties. — The duties of the Mexican citizen are, to be inscribed in 
the register of his municipality, stating- the amount of property he 
holds, or the trade, profession, or industry he is engaged in; to enlist 
in the national guard; to vote in the elections of his district; and to 
faithfully discharge the duties pertaining to an}^ post to which he may 
be elected in the Federation, 

Forfeiture of citizenship. — Citizenship is forfeited, (1) through natu- 
ralization in a foreign country; (2) b}'' serving, in an official capacity, 
the government of another country, or by accepting from a foreign 
government decorations, titles, or charges — other than literary, 
scientific, or humanitarian — without previous consent of the Fed- 
eral Congress. The law determines the cases and form entailing the 
loss or suspension of the rights of citizenship and the manner of 
rehabilitation. 

ALIENS. 

Under date of May 28, 1886, a law was passed by the Mexican 
Government governing aliens and their naturalization, which is, in 
substance, as follows: 

nights of aliens. — Aliens enjoy in the liepublic the civil rights 
belonging to Mexicans and the guarantees granted b}^ section 1 of 
title 1 of the Constitution, without prejudice to the Government's 
right to expel a pernicious alien. 

For the acquisition of waste or public lands, real estate, and ships, 
aliens are not required to reside in the Kepublic, but they are subject 
to the restrictions imposed b}^ existing laws; in the understanding, 
nevertheless, that ever}" lease of real estate to an alien for a period 
exceeding ten years shall be deemed a full conveyance. 

The Federal law alone can modif}^ or abridge the civil rights enjoyed 
'by aliens, in consequence of the principles of international reciprocit}^, 
and in order that the aliens may thereb}^ be subject in the Republic to 
the same disqualifications as the laws of their own country impose on 
Mexicans residing there; hence the provisions of the civil code and of 
the code of civil procedure of the Federal District on this subject have 
a federal character, and shall be obligatory throughout the whole 
Union. 

Aliens maj^ be domiciled in the Republic for all legal purposes with- 
out losing their nationality. The acquisition, change, or loss of 
domicile are governed by the laws of Mexico. 

When the suspension of individual guarantees is declared under the 
provisions of article 29 of the Constitution, aliens, as well as Mexicans, 
are subject to the provisions of the laws decreeing the suspension, 
without prejudice to the stipulations of treaties. 

Limitations. — Aliens are bound to contribute to the public expenses 
in the manner prescribed by the laws, and to obey and respect the 
institutions, laws, and authority of the country, subjecting themselves 



54 MEXICO. 

to the judg-ments and decisions of the courts, and having- no right to 
have recourse to other measures than those which the law grants to 
Mexicans. Thej may appeal to the diplomatic channel only in the 
case of denial of justice or intentional delay in its administration, after 
exhaustino- in vain the ordinary means created by the laws, and in the 
manner prescribed b}^ international law. Aliens can not enjoy an}^ of 
the political rights of Mexican citizens. Aliens are exempt from mili- 
tary service. Domiciled aliens are bound, however, to perform police 
service when the security of property or the maintenance of order in 
the localit}^ in which they are residing is involved. 

Aliens taking part in the civil dissensions of the country mny be 
expelled from its territory as pernicious aliens, and are subject to the 
laws of the Republic as to the offenses which they may commit against 
it, without prejudice to the regulations of their rights and obligations 
during a state of war, by international law and treaties. 

OitizensM^). — The laws ordering the registration of aliens are 
repealed. The Ministry of Foreign Relations alone can issue certifi- 
cates of any given nationality in favor of the person requesting them. 
These certificates constitute legal presumption of foreign citizenship, 
but do not exclude proof to the contrary. The final proof of any given 
nationality is made before the competent courts, and b}^ the means 
prescribed by the laws and treaties. 

Aliens who have acquired real estate and who have had children 
born to them in Mexico, or who have held any public oflice are bound 
to declare within six months after the promulgation of this law, if they 
have not done so previously, before the civil authorities of their place 
of residence, whether they wish to acquire Mexican citizenship or 
retain their own. In the former case they must immediately ask for 
their certificate of naturalization. If they fail to make the declara- 
tion in question they shall be considered Mexicans, except in those 
cases where there has been an official declaration to this end. 

Colonists in Mexico come under the provisions of this last article. 

GENERAL PROVISIONS. 

The following- are among the general provisions of the Constitution : 
In time of peace no military authority'' can exercise any other functions 
than those intimatel}^ connected with military discipline. The state 
and the church are independent of each other, it being the exclusive 
right of the Federal Executive to exercise, in the matter of religious 
worship and external discipline, the intervention prescribed by law. 
Marriage is a civil contract, which, like any other act of the civil 
state of individuals, falls under the exclusive jurisdiction of the civil 
officials and authorities, as prescribed by law and having only the 
force and validity that law accords it. The Constitution is inviolable. 



ARMY AJSTD NAVY. 55 



ARMY AND NAVY. 



At the close of the protracted period of wars and revolutions which 
had distracted the Republic the Mexican army lacked, in general terms, 
the technical instruction and organization impossible to attain in the 
midst of active warfare. Since the establishment of peace the Govern- 
ment has taken two steps of prime importance toward the improve- 
ment of the army and navy of the country — one the complete reorgan- 
ization of both branches of the service, and the other the reduction of 
the standing army. To this end the Military School, which has fur- 
nished many intelligent officers and engineers, has been reorganized. 
There is also a Naval Academy for the training of officers, a school of 
marksmanship, a school for the training of military bands and, dis- 
tributed throughout the country, are 187 academies for the instruction 
of citizens who desire to enter the second reserve of the arm3^ The 
old infantry armament has been replaced b}^ the latest improved arras; 
the most modern ordnance has been substituted for the obsolete artil- 
lery pieces; the national arms and powder factories have been equipped 
with the most improved machinery, and, in short, everything has been 
done to place the army of the Republic on a footing with the general 
progress of the nation. 

All Mexicans capable of bearing arms are obliged to serve either in 
the regular army or the national guard. The army is composed of 
regular and auxiliary troops of the reserve. The strength of the reg- 
ular army is fixed by law at 30,000 men, that of the reserve at 28,000 
men, and that of the second reserve at 150,000 men. The troops are 
not formed into army corps except in case of mobilization. 

Shortly after the restoration of the Republic, in 1867, the arm}^ con- 
sisted of 37,103 privates, officered by 11 major-generals, 73 brigadier- 
generals, 1,011 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors, and 2,335 
commissioned officers. 

At present the regular army establishment is made up as follows: 

Infantry. — Twenty-eight battalions, 1 skeleton battalions, 2 com- 
panies of District troops, 1 section of scouts, the auxiliary troops of 
Sonora (18 officers and 219 men), and the Yucatan guard (21 officers 
and 101 men). 

Cavalry. — Fourteen regiments and 1 skeleton regiments, Federal 
Auxiliary Corps (15 officers and 298 men), and the Sonora Auxiliaries 
(62 men). 

Artillery. — Two regiments of mounted, 1 regiment of horse, 1 reg- 
iment of mountain, 1 troop with rapid-tire guns, 1 train, 1 battery and 3 
sections of garrison, 1 company of mitrailleuse. Further there are 1 
battalion of sappers and miners, 1 park of engineers, 1 troop of trans- 
port, 1 signal corps section, 1 hospital corps. 

Arms. — The infantry is armed with Mauser rifles of the pattern of 
1901, 7 mm. caliber. The cavalry with carbines of same pattern. The 



56 



MEXICO. 



Artilleiy have Bang-e guns of 7.9 c. m. caliber. The mountain bat- 
teries liave guns of the Gruson pattern. The reserves have the Mauser 
rifle of 1808. The machinery for the manufacture of ammunition was 
imported from German}^ in 1902. 

The strength of the army on peace footing was in 1902: 



Officers. 



Men. 



Horses. 



Pack ani- 
mals. 



Minister of War, Staff, and President's Guard 

Administration 

Infantry 

Cavalry 

Artillery 

Engineers 

Hospital Service 

Invalid Corps 



384 
1,066 
900 
575 
161 

63 
154 

10 



101 

675 

15, 796 

6,800 

1,585 

725 

290 

39 



66 




49 






907 


6,569 


588 


352 


1,024 


19 


286 


13 


51 



The effective strength in time of war is given at 3,500 ofiScers and 
120,000 men infantry, 20,000 men cavalry, and 6,000 men artillery. 

Namj. — The navy consists of the Democrata; gunboat of the first 
class, 450 tons, 600 horsepower, -l guns. Libertad^ 430 tons, 400 horse- 
power, 5 guns. Zaragoza (school-ship), 1,200 tons, 1,300 horsepower, 
8 guns. Oaxaca^ transport; Yucatan (sailing ship), and 2 schooners. 
Two combined gunboats and transports, Tamjnco and Veracruz^ are 
under construction at Elizabethport, N. J., and 2 other gunboats are 
being built in Italy. The personnel of the navy consists of 130 
officers and 292 men. 



CHAPTER V. 

POLITICAL DIVISION— THE VALLEY OF MEXICO AND THE FED- 
ERAL DISTRICT— CAPITAL CITY, PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS, PUBLIC 
INSTITUTIONS. 

POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 

Territorial division. — The territory of the United Mexican States 
(Estados Unidos Mexicanos) is divided into 1 Federal District, 27 
States, and 2 Territories, whose organization is ahnost identical with 
that of the American Union. The States, as before indicated, are free 
and sovereign in all matters pertaining to their internal administration, 
their government being vested in three heads, namely: State govern- 
ment. State legislature, and State judicial power. The States and 
Territories are, for convenience, classified as follows, according to their 
situation : 

Central States. — Federal District, Aguascalientes, Durango, Gua- 
najuato, Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, 
Tlaxcala, and Zacatecas, with and area of 372,480 square kilometers. 

Northern States. — Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Sonora, 
'measuring 658,032 square kilometers. 

Gulf States. — Campeche, Tabasco, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Yucatan, 
and Territorio de Quintana Roo, 323,610 square kilometers. 

Pacific States. — Baja Calif ornia, Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, 
Michoacan, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, and Tepic, whose combined area measures 
629,037 square kilometers. 

The two Territories are Tepic and Baja (Lower) California. 

The Valley of Mexico. — The picturesque and extensive vallej^ of 
Mexico comprises an extensive plain, broken occasionally by isolated 
hills and surrounded by two large mountain chains. Several ranges 
cross the valle}^ west and south, while on the east rises the great 
Sierra Nevada, formed by the majestic Popocatepetl and the Ixta- 
cihuatl, the former rising 3,200 meters above the mean level of the 
valley and 5,452 meters above sea level and the latter 5,286 meters 
above the level of the sea. The northern boundary of the valley 
has not yet been defined. The area of the valley is given as 4,214 
square kilometers, not including the 1,532 square kilometers of the 
Zumpanga Valley, but both should be considered as forming one single 
valley, whose combined area is 5,746 square kilometers. 

57 



58 MEXICO. 

The waters of the valley form two distinct watersheds, one sloping 
in an easterly direction and the other toward the west, both embracing- 
a number of small streams. Spurs of the lateral mountain ranges close 
the valley north and south, its center thus forming a basin where the 
waters of the two watersheds collect, forming five lakes, namely: Zum- 
pango, 2,284: meters above sea level; Xultocan and San Cristobal, in 
the north, 2,277 meters above sea level; Chalco and Xochimilco, in 
the south, 2,280 meters and 2,268 meters, respectively, above sea level; 
and Lake Texcoco, on whose western shore lies the citj of Mexico. 
This last is the largest of all the lakes, being at the present daj^ about 
30 square kilometers in extent, though in former times it covered a 
larger area. As it lies in the lowest point of the valle}^ all the surplus 
water of the other lakes drain into it during the rainy season, thus 
causing frequent inundations in the capital, to prevent which a system 
of drainage has been established. 

The " Guia General Descriptiva de la Republica Mexicana,"'* from 
which the information in regard to the Federal District has been ob- 
tained, divides the work undertaken for the proper drainage of the 
valley of Mexico into four epochs. In the j^ear 1449, during the rule 
of Moctezuma, the first dams connecting Tenochtitlan (Mexico) with 
Tepeyac (Guadalupe) and Xochimilco were constructed. During- the 
Colonial Empire (1553) a curved dam was built to replace those de- 
stroyed by Cortes during the war, others being built in 1601 and 1708. 
During the republican regime President Comonfort, in 1856, invited 
the competition of experts, both native and foreign, whose plans for 
the drainage works should fulfill certain conditions, among them being 
the stipulation that the waste waters be always used for irrigation 
purposes. Of the seven projects presented that of Engineer Francisco 
Garay was selected, and the work has lately been linished in accord- 
ance with his plans. The delay in the completion of the work was due 
to several disturbances in the countr}^ until, in 1885, President Diaz 
approved an appropriation of $400,000 a year for the continuance of 
the work until it should be finished, v^^hich was successfully effected 
in 1896 at a cost of $13,000,000. The work on the main canal, which 
necessitated the removal of 10,215,000 cubic meters of earth, kept 
3,000 men and 5 dredging machines constantly employed. During the 
progress of the work upheavals of the soft bed of the canal occurred 
several times, thus rendering it necessary to commence the work anew. 
The canal starts at a point east of the city about on a level with Lake 
Texcoco, 1.30 meters below the mean level of Mexico, crosses the river 
Guadalupe hj means of an aqueduct 50 centimeters above the mean 
level of the liver, extends for a distance of 18 kilometers, penetrating- 
deeper and deeper into the earth until it enters a tunnel 10 kilometers 
in length, constructed at a slight incline and furnished with ventholes 

"Compiled by J. Figueroa Domenech- Araluce, publisher, Mexico, 1899. 



FEDERAL DISTKICT. 59 

to a depth of 94 meters. The works are provided with a system of 
lock gates, which insure control of the waste waters and regulate the 
level of Lake Texcoco, thus preventing inundations. The works were 
formally inaugurated on March 17, 1900. Their entire cost from 1886 
to June 30, 1900, when they were finally delivered to the department 
of communications, is estimated at $15,967,778.^' The valle}^ of Mexico 
has undergone a great modification with the opening of the main canal. 
The waters, which formerly emptied into the small lakes, and owing 
to the configuration of the land, had no natural outlets, thus constitut- 
ing at times centers of infectious diseases, are now drained into Lake 
Texcoco and can be controlled at will, either allowed to flow out when 
too abundant, or retained for irrigation purposes in case of need. 

Climate of the valley . — As the valley is situated within the torrid 
zone its climate might naturally be expected to be exceedingly hot, 
but as its altitude above sea level is 2,280 meters, the mean tempera- 
ture is that of the temperate zone. During the summer the maxi- 
mum temperature is reached at 2 o'clock in the afternoon in the 
months of April and May and does not exceed 26° C. (78.80° F.), while 
the lowest temperature in the morning during the same months is 
about 10° C. (50° F.), the mean temperature being from 18° to 19° C. 
(61° to ^^"^ F.). During the winter the minimum temperature 
recorded in the mornings of November, December, and January, is 
about 2° C. (35° F.), while the maximum experienced during the 
same months is from 19° to 20° C. (^'o^ to 68° F.), the mean tempera- 
ture being, therefore, about 12° C. (53.60 F.). As indicated by these 
figures the mornings are cool and pleasant all the year and the after- 
noons temperate. There are only two seasons — the dry season from 
October to March, and the rainy season from April to September. 
The rainfall throughout the year is not very heavy, but as it is all 
utilized in the valley for irrigation purposes, it equals in its effect a 
much larger quantity. The winds blow from the northeast, but are 
never so strong as to become hurricanes. 

Natural ]?'^"oducts. — The natural products of the valley are exclu- 
sively of an agricultural character and in keeping with the aridity of 
the soil, corn, wheat, and vegetables being the leading products in the 
order named. The "maguey" grows well, also certain fruits, such 
as the "zapote," peaches, apples, etc. The abundance of flowers 
during the whole year throughout the valley is as remarkable as the 
lack of mineral wealth, so plentiful elsewhere within the Mexican 
territory. 

Federal District. — The Federal District,^ population 511.516, lies to 

« Except when otherwise specified, all values from Mexican official statistics are in 
Mexican silver. 

^The population given throughout the Look is according to the latest corrections 
to the census of 1900. 



60 MEXICO. 

the southeast of the valley, between 19° 3' and 19° 31' north latitude 
and 10' 10" east and 11' 45" west of the meridian of Mexico. At its 
greatest length the District measures 49 kilometers from southeast 
to north, and its extent east and west is 40 kilometers. Official data 
in regard to the area give it as 1,498.75 square kilometers. Nearly 
one-half of the rural inhabitants of the District are Indians engaged 
in agricultural pursuits. 

Puljlic instruction. — The total number of primary government or 
free schools in the district in 1902 was 337, of which 143 were for 
males, the same number for females, and 51 for both sexes, the total 
number of students registered being 55,113. There were also 3 second- 
ary or preparatory schools, the average attendance for both sexes being 
1,631 per annum, and 13 government professional schools, besides 171 
educational institutions controlled hj private individuals. 

Vital statistics. — Demographic statistics for 1902 show that the 
number of births in the Federal District in 1901 was estimated at 
16,261, of which 8,371 were males and 7,890 females. The number of 
deaths for the same period was 29,285, of which 15,265 were males 
and 14,020 females, or 28,985 Mexicans and 300 foreigners. 

Telegraphs and telepliones. — According to the latest official data 
(1902) there are in the Federal District 107 kilometers of Federal tele- 
graph lines, and 1,692 of Federal telephones. 

Political divisions. — The Federal District is divided into six 
frefecturas and one municipality, as follows: Prefecture of Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, Atzcapotzalco, Tacubaya, Tlalpam, Xochimilco, and Coyoa- 
can, whose chief towns bear the name of the respective prefectures, 
and the municipality of Mexico, capital of the Republic. 

Prefecture of Guadalupe- -Hidalgo. — Population, 16,761; embraces 
the northern portion of the district, being divided into two munici- 
palities: Ixtacalco and Guadalupe-Hidalgo. The chief town of the 
prefecture is in constant communication with the capital b}^ means of 
tramways. The municipality of Guadalupe is celebrated on account 
of the temple dedicated to Our Lady of Guadalupe, the patron saint 
of the Republic, who, according to tradition, appeared on the hill of 
Tepej^ac within the town of Guadalupe. The soil of the prefecture 
is barren toward the east, but salt deposits, left through the evapora- 
tion of Lake Texcoco, are abundant, the main sources of exploitation 
being chloride of sodium, carbonate of soda, and nitrate of potassium. 
There is also a petroleum well at Guadalupe, and the surrounding hills 
yield fine building stones. There is not a great variety of vegetation, 
it being confined almost exclusively to the western portion of the 
prefecture, the leading produce being corn, vegetables, and maguey. 

Prefecture of Tacubaya. — Population, 37,695; occupies the south- 
east portion of the Federal District and is formed b}^ four municipalities: 
Tacubaya, Mixcoac, Santa Fe, and Coaximalpa. The chief town is 



XOCHIMILCO. 61 

Tacubaj^a, the principal pleasure resort of the valley, and possessing 
fine buildings and gardens. The National Astronomic Observatory is 
a handsome building of modern architecture, erected on the highest 
point of the town, and containing some very fine instruments. The 
San Miguel and Monte de las Cruces mountain peaks form the 
southern boundary of the prefecture, and several streams originating 
on their slopes irrigate the land, which is the best agricultural section 
in the whole district, and supply drinking water for the city of ^Mexico. 
As is the case throughout the entire district, corn is the chief agricul- 
tural product, though in Tacubaya and Mixcoac floriculture is carried 
on extensively, this industry giving rise to floral expositions and fairs. 
Fruits may also be cultivated with care. 

Prefecture of Tlcllpam — Population 22,962; embraces five munici- 
palities. It is situated between Tacubaya on the west. Xochimilco 
on the east, Mexico on the north, and the States of Mexico and Morelos 
on the south. Tlalpam is also the name of its chief town, which, after 
Tacubaya, is the principal summer resort for the inhabitants of the 
capital. Situated on a picturesque spot, where the mountain slopes 
merge into the plain, it presents the peculiarity of possessing fertile 
lands in one section and absolutely sterile soil in another. The munici- 
pality of San Angel is noted on account of the "'Feast of Flowers" 
held there, when prizes are awarded to cultivators of fruits and flowers. 
Embellished with innumerable gardens, tilled with the richest flowers, 
and orchards producing the finest fruits and vegetables, and enriched 
with palatial dwellings, there are few more charming spots in the 
world. The southern portion of the prefecture embraces the slope of 
Mount Ajusco, whose ramifications extend northwardly as far as San 
Angel and Tlalpam, where the plain commences. The small streams 
of the locality empt}^ into the canal of Xochimilco. 

Prefecture of Kocliiinilco — Population 52,025; occupies the eastern 
and southern portions of the district and contains nine municipalities. 
Xochimilco, the chief town, is one of the oldest cities of the Anahuac 
Valley. It lies on the shores of what was formerh^ Lake Xochimilco, 
which no longer exists in its original form, the waters having been 
drained into numerous canals for the advantageous irrigation of the 
now fertile lands surrounding it. The leading products are the same 
as in the other prefectures. The topography of this region is varied, 
and while it is not traversed by a single natural stream, the soil is 
extremelj^ fertile, as the several canals carrying the waters of the 
rivers Tlalmanalco and Tenango to the Xochimilco Canal irrigate 
the lands, and in the mountainous region of the south sufficient 
moisture is supplied b}^ the frequent rains to maintain a vigorous 
vegetation, corn being the principal product. The produce of the 
region is transported to the capital in canal boats. The other munici- 
palities areCoyoacan and Atzcapotzalco, 23,16-± and 20,011 inhabitants, 
respectively. 



62 MEXICO 

Physical feamrex. — ^From the foregoing^ it is evident that moantains 
and raUcTS are the main physical features of the Federal IHstrict 
To the north rise the ramifications of the Sierra de Gnadalnpe, from 
200 to 230 meters above the level of the capital, while the east and 
center is an extensive plain broken only by the Santa Catarina and 
Estrella momitains, respectively 2<K) and 150 meters above the level of 
the city. Sedimentary soil to a depth of 50 meters is f otmd aU over 
the plain, while the mountain regions are composed of eruptive rocks 
and oranite. The small valley- l^etween the motmtains contain abun- 
dant vegetable matter. 

Yidue ofpropeny. — ^The area of cultivation in the Federal District 
is about three-fourths its whole extent. The value of property varies 
according to irrigation facilities and the means of commtLnication. 
Public lands fluctuate between IS and 20 cents per square meter, while 
other lands, in better condition, command as much as 50 cents. Within 
the City of Mexico property in the northern, southern, and eastern 
sections is quoted at 2 to 6 pesos" the square meter: from .30 to 35 
]>esos on the west side, and in the central section as high as 2<Xi pesos 
per square meter. 

THE CAPITAL CTTr. 

Municipality of 2[&eico. — ^The municipality of Mexico embraces the 
capital proper and the surrounding country, its maximum radius being 
8 kilometers, with a ]X)pulation of 368,898. Besides the city proper, 
the other points of interest in the municipality are Chapultepec. Santa 
Anita, and the Hot Springs of El Peiion. 

Ti'.e Capitol City. — ^The City of Mexico, 2.229 meters above the sea. 
population 3U:-721. is one of the most ancient cities of this continent. 
ha^-ing been successively the capital of the Aztec Empire, of the Span- 
ish colony of Xew Mexico, and now of the Eepublic. beiDg. in addi 
tion the chief town of the Federal District. 

Its foundation dates from 1325 or 1327. when the Aztecs, after 
long wanderings, were directed by the oracle to settle on this spot 
where they had seen the auspicious omen of an eagle perched on a 
nopal (cactusj devouring a snake, which is at present embodied in the 
coat of arms of the Eepublic. 

The original name of the city. Tenochtitlan (""cactus on a stone"), 
was changed afterwards to Mexico, in honor of the war god Mexitli. 
The Aztec civilization gave great impetus to the city's development, 
and in 1150. or aVjout that time, the mud and rush houses of the first 
inhabitants had been replaced by solid stone structures. It had 
attained its highest degree of splendor at the time of the arrival of the 
Spaniards <1519j. the number of dwellings being from 50.0<X> to «30,000, 

«One peso is equal to |0.461 American gold, as officially estimated on January 1, 
1904, by the director of the United States mint. 



CLIMATE. 63 

and the population being estimated at 500,00(>. The city was then 
about 12 miles in circumference and was intersected by canals, and. as 
it had been built in part on piles amid the islets of Lake Texcoco, 
grouped around the center inclosure of the great Teocalli, it was con- 
nected with the mainland by six long and solidly constructed cause- 
ways. Mexico City hag been the scene of many stirring events: 
among others, the destruction in 1692, while under Spanish rule, of 
all the municipal buildings: several revolutions: capture by the United 
States Army after the battle of Chapultepec, September 13. 1847. 
and by the French army under General Forey in 1863. Since the 
defeat of the French intervention scheme in 1867, and the overthrow 
of ^Maximilian, peace has been maintained continually and the city has 
become a great center of civilization. 

The limits of the present City of Mexico embrace almost twice the 
area of the old one, the extension having been in a northwesterly direc- 
tion, and the new portion not being so regularly laid out as the old. 
There are about 9('0 streets and lanes ti-aversinsr the eitv at rio-ht 
angles from north to south and from east to west, and rail connections 
with Veracruz, 263 miles distant, on the Atlantic: with Acapulco on 
the Pacific, 290 miles: with Oaxaca, 205 miles: with Matamoras. on 
the United States frontier. 863 miles, and with El Paso. Tex., a dis- 
tance of 1.224 miles. 

Climate. — The climate of the City of Mexico is probably the pleas- 
antest and healthiest of any large city in the world. Situated in the 
Tropics, it is generally rcg-arded as having a tropical climate, with 
intense heat in the summer months; but its altitude of 2,229 meters 
above sea level offsets its low latitude, tempers its climate, and renders 
impossible such marked changes in temperature as are experienced at 
lower altitudes. Its situation in the center of a great valley, some 2CK) 
miles in circumference, completely walled in by high mountains, serves 
as a further protection against sudden changes in temperature and 
severe storms. The mean annual temperature, in the shade, of the 
City of Mexico for the period of twenty-five years past has been about 
15- centigrade or. 50.79- F. The mouth of May. just preceding the 
beginning of the rainy season, is the hottest month of the year, with 
an average temperature of about 18- centigi-ade or 64.-58': and 
December, with an average temperature of 12- centigrade or 53.60-, 
is the coldest. 

While the temperatiu-e varies only a few degrees throughout the 
year, the dailv range is comparatively great, due to the high altitude. 
There is always a marked difference between sun and shade tempera- 
tures and between day and night temperatures. The latter is an 
advantage rather than a drawback to the climate. Thus, while it is 
quite warm during several hours of each day. it is always cool ar 
nio-lit. 



64 MEXICO. 

Principal hull dings. — Among- the principal public buildings are the 
Cathedral, considered the largest and most sumptuous church in 
America. It is built on the north side of the Plaza de la Constitucion, 
which covers 14 acres, and is embellished with shade trees, gardens, 
marble fountains, and seats. The Cathedral was founded in 1573 bj'^ 
Philip II, of Spain, and the work lasted thuough the reigns of four 
monarchs, extending nearly a century, and was completed, with the 
exception of the towers, in 1667, at a cost of $2,000,000. It is built 
on the same site once occupied by the Teocalli, or Aztec Temple, and 
measures 130 meters from north to south and 60 meters from east to 
west. The interior belongs to the Doric order of architecture, mingled 
with reminiscences of the Gothic style, a feature of the Spanish 
constructions of the sixteenth centur3^ It is divided into 5 naves, 
decreasing in height from the center to the sides, and includes 14 
chapels, while 20 striate columns support the graceful arches and 
vaulted roof, forming a latin cross, and the whole is surmounted by a 
beautiful dome, ornamented with paintings by the celebrated Jimeno. 
The high altar is supported by marble columns and surrounded by a 
tumbago balustrade, with 62 statues of the same rich gold, silver, and 
copper alloy serving as candelabra. The elaborately carved choir is 
also inclosed by tumbago railings weighing 26 tons and valued at 
^1,600,000. The style of the exterior is Renaissance, with 5 domes 
and 2 open towers 62 meters high. Other temples worthy of men- 
tion are the Profesa, Loreto, Santa Teresa, Santo Domingo, and San 
Hipolito, all of large proportions and containing artistic relics. 

The National Palace (Palacio Nacional) is another of the most remark- 
able public buildings, as it is intimately connected with the histor}^ of 
the countr}^, having been once the sumptuous abode of Moctezuma II, 
last but one of the Aztec Emperors; also the residence of 5 Spanish 
Governors (from Cortes to Gonzalo de Estrada) of 2 Audiencias, of 
63 Viceroys (from Don Antonio de Mendoza to O'Donoju), of 1 Mexi- 
can Emperor, Yturbide, of 1 foreign Emperor, Maximilian, and of 33 
Presidents of the Republic, from General Victoria to General Diaz, 
the present Chief Magistrate. The architecture of the building is 
poor and monotonous, and nothing remains of its former Aztec 
splendor. The area occupied bj^ the palace measures 40,000 square 
meters, thus constituting one of the largest public buildings in the 
world, and includes the following departments: The Presidential suite 
of reception rooms; ^he Ambassadors' room; five Executive Depart- 
ments (Interior, Foreign Affairs, Treasury, War, and Justice); the 
General Archives of the Nation; General Post-ofSce and Engineers' 
headquarters; the Artillery headquarters; the National Museum and 
Observatory; the Meteorological Bureau, and others. 

TJbe Castle of Chapultepec rises from the top of a hill, west of the 
(city, amid century -old trees and beautiful gardens. Both the castle 



PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. 65 

and the location are full of historic memories. The interior of the 
structure is tastefully and richly decorated, it being the summer home 
of the President. Its spacious rooms and galleries contain the finest 
rugs and Gobelin tapestries, beautiful frescoes in the Pompeian style, 
and artistic furniture of red African marble. The Military School 
occupies a portion of this building. 

There are many other fine buildings in the city too numerous to 
mention separatel3^ Among the public monuments are found the 
statue of Charles IV, the monument to Columbus, the monument to 
Cuauhtemoc, all on the "Paseo de la Reforma," the richest and most 
beautiful park in this city. 

The principal theaters are the "Teatro Nacional," or opera house, 
with a seating capacity of 3,000 persons; the "Teatro Principal," a 
small building; the "Circo Orrin," and others. There are also two 
bull rings, a race track, etc. 

Public institutions. — The School of Mining and Engineering is 
another remarkable building, constructed entirely of stone, and dating 
from the last century. Its fapade is Doric and of imposing and severe 
beaut}^, while the interior, of the same architectural stj^le, is ornamented 
with several frescoes b}^ Jimeno. The School of Engineering is now 
annexed to the School of Mining, and possesses an astronomical and 
meteorological observator}^ a library containing over 6,000 volumes, 
and cabinets of mineralogy, geology, and paleontology. The Depart- 
ment of Fomento (Promotion) occupies a portion of this building, 
where it has its own printing establishment. 

The National Library was originally built for a church, being dedi- 
cated to St. Augustine in 1692, but in 1867 President Juarez devoted 
it to its present use. It is a massive stone structure of varied archi- 
tecture and consists of three sections — the main structure, ornamented 
with the statues of ancient and modern celebrities, is devoted to the 
reading room; the library proper, containing over 200,000 volumes, 
and the whole building is surrounded by gardens and inclosed within 
an iron railing, with stone columns at regular intervals, upon which 
are erected 20 busts representing as many Mexican celebrities, among 
others being Tezozomoc and Ixtlilxochitl, Aztec chroniclers; Netza- 
hualcoyotl, the poet king; Clavijero and Alaman, historians, etc. 

Besides the National Library, the city possesses 32 others, both 
Federal and private libraries, among which the following may be men- 
tioned: The School of Jurisprudence, 20,000 volumes; the "Cinco de 
Mayo," 12,000; Preparatory School, 10,000; School of Engineering, 
8,000. 

The National Museum dates from the eighteenth century, and con- 
tains man}^ objects of archaeological, ethnological, anthropological, and 
historical value. There are other museums, 11 scientific and literary 
associations, 2 observatories — the National, already mentioned, and the 
509a— 04 -5 



66 MEXICO. 

one belonging- to the School of Engineering — a Conservatory of Music, 
and several scientific associations. According to the census of 1900, 
there were in Mexico City 15,042 dwelling houses of all classes and 
539 in course of construction, 56 hotels, 16 hospitals, 51 colleges, 4 
public jails, 1 penitentiary, 1 house of correction, 17 barracks, 80 
Roman Catholic temples, and 13 churches of all other denominations. 

According to the latest available data, in 1902 there were in the 
City of Mexico 94 daily papers and magazines, reviews, weekly and 
fortnightly publications entered in the post-office, published in Span- 
ish, English, French, and German. 

Means of communication. — The City of Mexico being both the 
administrative and the commercial center of the Republic is the focus 
of all the railways from the States, whose tracks are also used for the 
service of the District. The National Railway, which connects the 
Republic with the United States, passes through Tacuba and Atzcapot- 
zalco; the Mexican, connecting the capital with Veracruz, passes 
through Los Reyes and the Cuernavaca through several other towns. 
The steam railroads operating- solely within the District are the Tacu- 
baya Railway, connecting with the lines going west to Santa Fe and 
south to Tizapan, and the Tlalpam Railway, which goes througfi 
Churubusco, San Antonio, Santa Ursula, and Hueypulco. Other 
important railways of the District are the tramways of the capital, 
leaving the city about every half hour and connecting it with several 
adjacent towns. These are the Tlanepautla line, which runs through 
Tacubaya and Atzcapotzalco; the line to Guadalupe; the line to the 
Hot Springs of El Penon; the line of Ixtapalapa, connecting several 
small towns, and the Chapultepec line, with the railroad of Tlalpam. 
There are besides good wagon roads and the Xochimilco Canal, which 
is the medium of communication by boat. According tothe"Guia 
General," there are in the District about 242 kilometers of railroads- in 
operation, as follows: Standard gauge, 169 kilometers 325 meters, and 
narrow gauge, 72 kilometers 566 meters. Of these about 116 kilo- 
meters are street lines. A tabulated statement published by the same 
authority shows that from 1873 to December 31, 1897, the traffic over 
all lines of the District amounted to 244,637,816 passengers, and the 
gross earnings of the lines are estimated at $19, 828, 854 Mexican silver. 

The report of the directors of the Mexico Electric Tramways Lim- 
ited, for 1903" shows that during that year the net profits of the com- 
pany, after paying the 3^^ per cent guaranteed on the share capital of 
the company, were $314,566 silver, which, at the rate of exchange of 
20.72d, gives the sum of £27,157. This sum added to former balances 
and other revenues from interests on the debentures of the " Compaiiia 
ae Ferrocarriles del Distrito Federal," controlled by this company, 
gives a total of £35,728, out of which a dividend of 6 per cent has 

« South American Journal, June 4, 1904. 



WATER SUPPLY. 67 

been paid on the preference shares, amounting- to about £30,000. 
Four small town lines have been converted to electric service, so that 
the total distance now operated b}^ electricity by this company is 129 
kilometers. New machinery is being erected to cope with the increase 
of the traffic. The number of passengers carried by these lines during 
1903 was 36,478,584, against 31,132,030 in 1902, being an increase of 
over 5,300,000 passengers. The receipts amounted to $2,799,282 in 
1903, against |2,400,787 in 1902, or an increase of 1398,495. 

As a commercial center the Cit}^ of Mexico is the richest in the 
country, possessing wealth}^ banking institutions, important railroads, 
telephones, telegraphs, electric light and power plants, manufacturing 
industries, large buildings devoted to stores and warehouses, and, in 
short, all the comforts and conveniences to be found in any large city. 

Banks. — The principal banking institutions of the capital are the 
"Banco Nacional de Mexico," with a capital of 120,000,000; the 
" Internacional Hipotecario," 15,000,000, and the " Londres y Mexico," 
$10,000,000; "Banco Central," $7,000,000; "Banco Agricola e Hipo- 
tecario," $2,000,000. Both the "Nacional" and the "Londres y Mexi- 
co " have branches in several of the States. 

The Central Bank, in addition to carrjang on the usual banking- 
business, acts in the capacity of a clearing house for a number of 
banks allied to it in other parts of the Republic. There are also 
numerous banking houses, bankers, and trust companies doing busi- 
ness with all commercial centers of the world. There are three cham- 
bers of commerce at the capital. 

Industries. — The number of manufacturing industries established at 
the capital is very large, and includes wine and liquor distilleries, fac- 
tories for pottery, tobacco, carriages, wagons, cardboard and paper, 
matches (wax and wooden), glue, chocolate, artificial ice, gloves, glass, 
cotton fabrics, knitted goods, soap, blank books, playing cards, fur- 
niture, hats, lace, etc., as well as foundries, breweries, and printing 
establishments. There are also several life and fire insurance com- 
panies, both foreign and national. The city possesses excellents hotels, 
restaurants, and cafes. 

Water supply. — When the City of Mexico was known during the 
time of the Aztecs as the " Nueva Tenoxtitlan," its drinking water was 
supplied by the spring called "Alberca Chica deChapul tepee." During 
the colonial period, in 1576, the Santa Fe springs were purchased, 
which now produce 6,000 liters of water per minute, and in 1786 water 
was furnished by the Desierto and Leones springs, which now yield 
8,000 liters per minute. From that time down to 1888 the city council 
did not secure any other properties; but in that year it purchased the 
"Alberca Grande de Chapultepec," which gives 7,000 liters of water 
per minute. All these acquisitions, however, did not suffice to furnish 
this necessary element to the city. 



68 MEXICO. 

In 1896 the cit}^ council, fearing a water famine, acquired a water 
supply from the Hacienda de los Morales, which gives 9,000 liters per 
minute, and also a suppl}^ of 800 liters per minute from the Concesion 
Chousal, Lastl}^, in 1899-1900, a supply has been secured from Rio 
Hondo, which, united to that from Morales, produces 30,000 liters per 
minute. According- to the statistics of 1901 the amount of water 
received in the city per minute was 40,000 liters, added to which is 
the suppl}^ from 1,088 artesian wells, yielding 16,610 liters per minute. 

One of the most important municipal undertakings has been the con- 
struction of a sewage system for the city, which is regarded as one of 
the most perfect to be found anywhere. The system adopted is that 
known as the combined water carriage, and consists of three principal 
parts — flushing pipes, sewers to collect the house refuse, and collectors 
to receive this refuse and carry it outside the city. The sewers can 
be flushed everj^ day by means of the water from the Viga Canal. 
The total disbursements on account of this sanitation project up to 
June 30, 1901, were $5,714,982.75. 

The following data is extracted from a report of United States 
Consul-General Barlow:'* 

'"'' Commerce. — The City of Mexico is to the Republic of Mexico, to 
an even greater degree perhaps, what Paris is to France. Being the 
capital of the country and the commercial center, with no other city 
in the Republic approaching it in population, its influence is supreme; 
being the railroad center, it is the distributing point for the rest of 
the Republic; being the banking center, the bulk of the financial trans- 
actions of the Republic pass through it. Much of the agricultural 
and mining business and some of the manufacturing business of the 
rest of the Republic are directed from this city. In a word, it is 
the administrative center of the Republic, commercially as well as 
politicall3^ 

From the foregoing it follows that the trade of the city is nearly as 
general as that of the entire Republic. The most important single line 
of trade and that which shows the larges amount of imports is in 
machinery and machinery supplies. This is practically controlled by 
Americans. The hardware trade, which is a good one, is largely in 
the hands of the Germans, though in the past few years American 
hardware has been making deep inroads into the German imports in 
this line. While the large hardware stores are run by Germans, all of 
them now carry large lines of American hardware. The dry-goods 
trade, which is next in importance after the machinery trade, was 
controlled early in the last century by the English and later by the 
Germans, but is now controlled by the French. Imports of American 
dry goods are increasing, however, and they are found in most of the 
large stores. 

« Commercial Relations of the United States, 1901, Vol. I. 



MEXICO. 69 

'"''Cost of living. — The cost of living in Mexico depends largely upon 
the tastes and adaptability of the person. In a general way, it may 
be said that if native products are consumed the cost of living is 
about the same in gold as in the United States; if imported products 
are used the cost of living is 50 to 100 per cent greater. 

Rents are extremely high. A six-room house or vivienda (flat) 
costs from $60 to $150 silver per month, according to location. The 
same house in a city in the United States, of similar size, would rent 
from $15 to $25 gold per month. A house that would rent in the 
United States, according to location and appearance, for $100 gold per 
month commands $500 silver (or about $250 gold) per month here. 
Rents of business houses are fully as high in proportion. It may be 
stated in a general way that private or business houses, rented, are 
expected to yield 12 to 15 per cent per year on the investment. Rents 
in the suburbs are almost as high as in the city proper. 

'"''Real estate. — Real-estate values have increased enormously in this 
cit}^ in the past few years. Lots in desirable residence sections of the 
city that were worth a few years ago only a few cents per square 
meter are now worth from $15 to $25 per square meter. A desirable 
building lot in a choice location, 50 to 150 feet, costs from $10,000 to 
$15,000. In outlying sections and in the suburbs, the cost will be 
about one-half of this. A house that will cost $5,000 to build in the 
United Sta^tes will cost from $17,000 to $20,000 Mexican silver to build 
in this city." 



CHAPTER VI 

THE STATES AMD TERRITORIES OF THE REPUBIilC— BRIEF GEO- 
GRAPHICAL SKETCH OF EACH— RESOURCES, MEANS OF COM- 
MUNICATION-CLIMATE, SEASONS, POPULATION, CAPITAL 
CITIES, INDUSTRIES. 

THE STATES. 

The States forming the Mexican Republic are 27 in number, besides 
the Federal District and 2 Territories." 

AGUASOALIENTES. 

The State of Aguascalientes, population 102,416, whose capital city, 
1,861 meters above the sea, bears the same name, is situated in the 
Central Plateau, and, though one of the smallest States in the Repub- 
lic, is also one of the richest, as it contains within its territory an 
agricultural region of great promise, and belongs, by reason of its 
altitude, to the Mexican temperate zone. 

Boundaries. — It is bounded on the north, west, and northeast by the 
State of Zacatecas, which almost surrounds Aguascalientes, with the 
exception of a small section to the south, southeast, and east, where 
the State of Jalisco joins it. The total area of the State measures 7,692 
square kilometers. 

Situation. — Owing to its situation on the Central Plateau, Aguasca- 
lientes occupies a beautiful and fertile region, which is cultivated 
almost in its entirety, the western and central portions being irrigated 
b}^ a number of rivers and brooks, while the eastern portion owes its 
development to the industry of the farming -population. The eastern 
and southeast erii portions are occupied b}^ the extensive plains of 
Tecuan, which, though containing a large number of haciendas (plan- 
tations) and ranchos (cattle ranches), are lacking in water courses. 
The fertile valle}^ of Aguascalientes, irrigated by a river of the same 
name, lies to the northeast, while the no less fertile valley of San 
Jacinto is farther north. 

Climate. — The cold region of the State lies to the northeast, where 
the mountain chains of Asientos and Tepezahi rise to a height of 2,414 
meters. The remainder of the territory, with the exception of a 
small section in the southwest belonging to the hot zone, is in the 
temperate region. Almost all the western and northern portions of 

« See table on page 407, Chapter XIX. 



Aguascalientes. 71 

the State are mountainous, being traversed by the Sierra Fria, and 
in the southwest are the mountains of the Sierra del Laurel. A num- 
ber of plateaus and isolated hills and a few chains of mountains rise 
in the center of the State, so that the mean altitude is from 1,000 to 
2,000 meters above sea level, excepting in the sections occupied by 
the Sierra Fria and the Sierra del Laurel, where the elevation varies 
from 2,000 to 3,000 meters. 

Rainfall. — ^The rainfall throughout the State is moderate except on 
the eastern plains. Frost is frequent both in the highest regions and 
in the Sierras, notably in the Partido de Asientos, while in Calvillo it 
occurs rarel3^ The prevailing winds blow from the west, northwest, 
and north. The climate is rather unhealthy, typhus and malarial 
fevers and affections of the respiratory organs being the most com- 
mon ailments. 

Rivers. — As has been stated, the irrigation of the western and cen- 
tral portions of the State, by reason of numerous rivers and brooks, 
is of the finest order, but in the eastern part rain and artesian-well 
waters are alone available for this purpose. The principal river, the 
San Pedro, Aguascalientes. or Rio Grande, has its headwaters south 
of the Zacatecas Mountain chain and enters the State on the north, 
and after traversing its entire extent from north to south enters the 
State of Jalisco. Other rivers are the Pabellon, Santiago, Mor- 
cinique, Chicalote, Labor, Tejas, Calvillo, and Tepezalilla. There are 
also several lagoons or swamps, which are of little importance. 

Mineral springs. — Aguascalientes (literally hot waters) derives its 
name from the several hot springs found within its limits, the princi- 
pal ones being those in the capital of the State, San Nicolas de la Can- 
tera, Ojo Caliente, Ojo Calientillo, and Colomo. The temperature of 
the waters in the several springs varies from 30° to 10.50° C. (86° to 
105° F.). 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of Aguascalientes embraces over 27 
classes of mammals, 58 species of birds, 9 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 4 
fishes, and 71 insects. The flora embraces over 137 species of wild 
trees, while there are over 18 kinds of fruits; among others, 20 varie- 
ties of pears, figs, several kinds of grapes, 11 textile plants, several 
classes of tanning barks, leaves and roots, oleaginous seeds or berries, 
dye plants, forage plants, poisonous and aromatic plants, gums and 
resins, 103 medicinal plants, and numberless ornamental shrubs and 
flowers. 

Resources. — The principal industries of the State are agriculture, 
stock raising, commerce, and mining. Almost its entire extent is 
under cultivation, the principal products being cereals of all kinds, 
fruits of every variety, and leguminous plants. Such products as the 
almond, cotton, citron, sugar cane, mangrove, and other tropical 
plants and trees would thrive. 



72 MEXICO. 

Stock raising is carried on to some extent, and, while no statistical 
data in regard to the number and species of live stock can be obtained, 
the following official figures for 1902, taken from the "Anuario Esta- 
distico," may give an idea of the extent of the industry. In that year 
there were slaughtered for consumption in the State 6,821 head of 
cattle, 1,982 sheep, 7,037 goats, and 9,071 hogs, valued at 1166,996 
silver. 

Mining^ which should be one of the main sources of wealth in the 
State, has been almost abandoned. The principal minerals found are 
copper, lead, silver, and magistral,'* the former most abundant at 
Asientos and the latter at Tepezala. The mining district, 63 kilome- 
ters northeast of Aguascalientes, is formed by a group of isolated 
mountains, whose highest points are the Altamira range and San Juan, 
Las Pilas, or Calavera. The number of copper and silver mines in 
operation during 1902 is officially estimated at 8, the total production 
being over 42,000,000 kilos, valued at $1,000,000 in round numbers.^ 

Trade. — The State of Aguascalientes is an important commercial 
center, exporting large quantities of corn and beans, especially to the 
City of Mexico; flour and magistral to several mining districts (Zaca- 
tecas, Pachuca, Guanajuato, and other places in San Luis Potosi), 
cattle, horses, and mules to several points in the Republic, as well as 
fruits, lumber and timber, hides and skins, tallow, horns, etc. The 
State imports from the City of Mexico and from Europe and the 
United States, through the ports of Tampico and Veracruz, groceries, 
ready-made clothing, cotton, wool, and silk fabrics, hardware, drugs, 
books, paper, chemical products, perfumery, arms and ammunition, 
furniture, glassware, wines and liquors, hats and bonnets, canned 
goods, jewelry, machinery and tools for agricultural, mining, and indus- 
trial purposes, carriages, etc. The total value of the trade of the 
State is estimated at about $7,500,000 per annum, divided as follows: 
Imports, 12,500,000; exports, $3,000,000; local trade, $2,000,000. The 
principal markets in the State are Aguascalientes, E,inc6n de Romos, 
and Calvillo. 

Communications. — The Mexican Central Railroad crosses the State 
in two directions, from south to north the line from Mexico to Ciudad 
Juarez, and from south to northeast the line from Aguascalientes to 
San Luis Potosi. The principal stations on the former line are Penuelas, 
Aguascalientes, Chicalote, Las Animas, Pabellon, Rincon de Romos, 
and Soledad; and on the latter, Aguascalientes, Chicalote, Canada, 
Gallardo, El Tule, and San Gil. The State is in telegraphic and mail 
communication with the rest of the Republic, and the telephonic %qyy- 

<^ Magistral is a species of copper pyrites absolutely necessary for the so-called 
"patio process." 

b Except when otherwise specified all values from Mexican official statistics are in 
Mexican silver. 



CAMPECHE. 73 

ice is o-ood and quite extensive. There are good wagon roads connect- 
ing the capital with the most important markets of the neighboring- 
States. 

Divisions. — The State is divided politically into four partidos, sub- 
divided into eight municipalities. Tho, partidos are the following: 

Eincon de Romos or Victoria de Calpulapam, population 12,714, 
v/hose chief town, situated on the Mexican Central, 43 kilometers dis- 
tant from the capital, bears the same name. 

Ocampo or Asientos, population 15,486, chief town Asientos de 
Ibarra, 10 kilometers from San Gil, on the Mexican Central. 

Calvillo, population 10,592, chief town bearing the same name, 627 
kilometers distant from Mexico City and 59 from Aguascalientes. 

Aguascalientes, population 63,624; its chief town, Aguascalientes, 
contains 56,244 inhabitants, and is the capital of the State. It is 
situated on the Mexican Central, 586 kilometers from the C\tj of 
Mexico. Among' the manufacturing industries of these partidos the 
principal ones are as follows: Cotton mills, tobacco factories, pottery 
works, tanneries, wagon factories, and wine and liquor distilleries. 

In the city of Aguascalientes there are two lines of tramways; tele- 
graph, telephone, and post-offices, schools, hospitals, public libraries, 
a chamber of commerce, etc., while all the principal towns in the State 
have similar institutions. 

CAMPECHE. 

The State of Campeche, population 86,542, with a capital city of the 
same name, near the level of the sea, lies to the southeast of the City 
of Mexico, occupying the western portion of the beautiful and warm 
peninsula of Yucatan. 

Boundaries. — Its borders are bathed by the waters of the Gulf of 
Mexico on the west and northeast, while Yucatan lies to the north and 
east, the Eepublic of Guatemala to the southeast and south, and the 
State of Tabasco to the south and southwest. 

Situation.- — Campeche occupies a large territory, the climate of 
which is deadl}^ in many sections, especially in the region of the south- 
ern plains. The area of the State is 46,855 square kilometers. From 
northwest to southeast the Sierra Alta crosses the territory until it 
meets the Sierra Baja, extending to the northwest of Yucatan. With 
the exception of this mountainous section, the State is a plain, occu- 
pied throughout its greatest extent by forests containing the campeche 
^or logwood and other valuable woods. A portion of the southern 
region, contiguous to Guatemala, is little known and almost unin- 
habited, as it contains large savannahs, swampy lands, and impene- 
trable forests. The richest section of the State is occupied by the 
Partido del Carmen. It is well irrigated by both large and small 
streams, which empty into the numerous lakes and lagoons surround- 



74 MEXICO. 

ing- the Lake of Terminos. The shores of the lakes and rivers are 
covered with forests containing dyewoods, hard woods, pahn trees, 
etc. These waterways are the means of outlet for the trade in woods, 
which owes its development to the flourishing port of El Carmen or 
Laguna, opposite Laguna de Terminos, which is, perhaps, the best 
harbor of the Mexican Gulf, Campeche scarcely ranking as such. 

Climate. — The climate of the State is hot and unhealthy and the 
rainfall is moderate, except in Partido del Carmen. Frosts are un- 
known, and, owing to the swampy and marshy condition of the land, 
malarial fevers are very common. 

Toj)ogra])liy . — The Sound or Bay of Campeche extends along the 
coast of the State, forming many estuaries, points, bars, and some 
islands. The coast line is low, sheltered, and, in some places, muddy. 
Coral reefs and other calcareous banks are abundant. This bay, which 
is an inlet from the Gulf of Mexico, has an area of over 6,000 square 
miles. The Banks of Yucatan, an enormous shoal extending along 
the coast of Yucatan opposite the Campeche coast as far as its 
Tabasco boundary on the west, have, according to soundings made by 
Mexican, American, and English sailors, a depth of 5 fathoms at a 
distance of from 5 to 7 miles from the shore; of 10 fathoms from 20 
to 35 miles, and a depth of 20 fathoms as far as a 60-mile limit WNW. 
otf Punta Palmas, and almost an equal distance to the south, and of 30 
fathoms for a few miles along the western limit of the soundings. 
Beyond this the depth falls abruptly to 40 fathoms. Hydrographic 
charts prepared by American and English experts show the main 
irregularities and dangers to be encountered in the Sound of Campeche. 
Hydrography. — The northern portion of the State, occupied hy the 
partidos of Hecelchakan, Campeche, and Bolonchen, lacks water courses, 
the region being fertilized by the rains, temporar}?^ brooks, and wells 
(called chenes) used for stoi'ing the rain waters. The southern portion 
of the State is well irrigated, especially the partidos of Carmen and 
Champoton. The principal river is the Sabancuy, which might prop- 
erl}^ be called an estuary, being 92.60 kilometers in length and from 
■iOO to TOO meters in width, lying to the northeast of the Partido del 
Carmen, navigable for small craft and emptying into the Lake of 
Terminos. The bottom of this river is full of oyster beds. The 
river Marmantel rises in the Partido Champoton, traverses the Partido 
del Carmen from the southeast to the northwest, and empties into Lake 
Palao, with a total length of 98 kilometers. It is navigable for a dis- 
tance of 39 kilometers and passes through forests of dj^ewoods and 
valuable timbers and cultivated lands. For a distance of 16 kilometers 
from its mouth the river measures 258 meters; thence its width is 25 
meters up to the twenty-eighth kilometer, gradually narrowing to 1 
meters at Pital and growing smaller and smaller toward its headwaters. 
The Candelaria, which is the largest river in the State, is supposed to 



II 



CAMPECHB. 75 

have its headwaters in Guatemala, and after traversing the State of 
Yucatan enters Campeche, irrigating the southern portion of the Par- 
tido de Champoton, thence running from east to west, and finally empty- 
ing into the Lake of Terminos. Its length is about 419 kilometers and 
its width varies from 125 to 176 meters at a distance of 10 kilometers 
from its mouth to about 61 or 52 meters, with a depth of from 8 to 60 
feet. It is navigable for a short distance only, on account of its pre- 
cipitous course. The Chumpan, 96 kilometers in length, is navigable 
for small craft, its width varying from 62 to 84 meters and its depth 
from 12 to 24 meters, according to the season. It is a confluent of 
Lake Terminos. The Palizada is also one of the largest rivers in the 
State. It rises in the State of Tabasco, enters the State of Campeche 
on the southwest, traverses it for a distance of 123 kilometers, from 
soutlieast to northwest, and empties into Lake Terminos, forming the 
Boca Chica Bar. The Palizada is navigable for craft from 16 to 50 
tons burden throughout almost its entire course, being 68 feet in depth, 
and having a mean width of from 60 to 66 meters. The Champoton, 
another river of importance, is navigable throughout its course, which 
is a very sinuous one. There are other rivers and streams of lesser 
importance. The Lake of Terminos is the most important in the 
State. Its shores are muddy and shallow. It communicates with the 
sea by means of two channels, the Principal and the Puerto Peal. The 
tides in this lake are very irregular, the greatest height during the syzj- 
gies being 2 feet. Other small lakes are San Carlos, Laguna Larga, 
Colorada el Corte, and a few small lagoons. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State is rich and varied, though 
not very well known. There are about 50 species of mammals, 70 
varieties of birds, 40 reptiles, 8 batrachians, 40 fishes, 76 insects, and 
many varieties of crustaceans, mollusks, etc. The flora embraces over 
150 species of wild trees, 50 fruits, 28 textile plants, 20 classes of 
leaves, roots, and barks for tanning purposes, 16 oleaginous seeds, 24 
dyewoods, 10 forage plants, 7 poisonous plants, 21 aromatic and a 
great number of medicinal plants, several gums and resins, and count- 
less flowers and ornamental plants. 

Resources. — The principal industries are the exploitation of cabinet 
woods, and the campeche or logwood (of first importance), commerce 
by land and sea, agriculture, stock raising, fisheries, exploitation of the 
salt deposits, extraction of the heniquen fiber and its manufacture into 
hammocks, ropes, mats, etc. 

According to Mexican oiEcial statistics, during the year 1901 the 
State of Campeche produced 22,162,380 kilos logwood, valued at 
$569,548, while in 1902 the production decreased to 9,300,000 kilos, 
valued, in round numbers, at |353,000; mahogany was produced in 
1901 to the amount of 22,162,380 kilos, valued at $142,674; cedar, in 
1902, about 1,600,000 kilos, valued at $70,000. 



76 MEXICO. 

Agriculture is one of the leading industries of the State, which pos- 
sesses fertile lands Avell adapted to the cultivation of the fruits of the 
hot and temperate zones. Rice, sugar cane, cotton, and sim lar prod- 
ucts might be advantageousl}^ cultivated in the southern part of the 
State, which is well irrigated, but the inhabitants devote their atten- 
tion niainl}^ to the exploitation of logwood and valuable timbers. 

Mining. — The principal mineral wealth of the State lies in its salt 
deposits, extending from the port of Celestum (State of Yucatan) to 
the port of Campeche. The annual yield is estimated at 40,000 to 
bO.,000 fanegas^i exported to the States of Tabasco, Veracruz, Tamaul- 
ipas, Hidalgo, Puebla, and Oaxaca. 

Trade. — The State maintains an active commerce with Europe and 
the United States, mainly in logwood and cabinet woods, the home 
trade being restricted to the salt exports (as above noted), shell prod- 
ucts, palm hats, hammocks, etc., to the City of Mexico, and the impor- 
tation of cattle and cereals in limited quantities. When, on account of 
the lack of rain, there is a scarcity of corn, this grain, as well as other 
products, is imported from the United States. The principal mercan- 
tile centers are Campeche, Carmen, Calkini, Hecelchakan, and Bolon- 
chenticul. 

The cabinet woods of the State are exported mainly to the United 
States and to Great Britain, the dyewoods to Great Britain, Germany, 
the United States, and France. Other exports are rubber, hair, cocoa- 
nuts, chicle, henequen, prepared hides and skins, etc. This commerce 
may be estimated at about $1,250,000 silver per annum. The imports 
embrace cotton, wool, silk, and linen fabrics; groceries, hardware, 
drugs and chemical products, paper, books, machinery, tools, agricul- 
tural implements, arms and ammunition, cereals, cattle, wines and 
liquors, etc. This trade is valued at about $500,000 annually. The 
number of vessels entering the port of Carmen in 1902 was, according 
to Mexican official data, as follows: 128 steamers, 176 sailing vessels; 
total, 304 vessels, of which 226 were Mexican and the balance foreign. 
The vessels entering the port of Campeche during the same period 
were 821, of which 133 were steam and the balance sailing vessels. 
The total number of vessels leaving both ports is estimated at 833 for 
Campeche and 283 for Carmen. 

Comtnunications. —The development of railroad traffic in Campeche 
is very small, due to the fact that the rivers are used as a means of 
communication with the interior and also that the principal towns are 
all situated on the seacoast. The railroad between Campeche and 
Merida is being exploited in sections, and between Campeche and 
Lerma there is a street railroad 7 kilometers in length, other lines 
being in operation in the cities of Campeche and Carmen. In the 
partido of Champoton there is a railway 40 kilometers in length 
connecting Ivonchac with Yohaitun. There are also telegraph and 



CAMPECHE. 77 

telephone lines, mail facilities, and fine wagon roads connecting the 
principal cities with those of the adjacent States, while steamship lines 
connect the principal ports with the rest of the world. 

Divisions. — The State of Campeche is divided into five partidos, 
which are subdivided into municipalities. 

The partido of Hecelchakan, population 24,185, has for its chief 
town a citj of the same name, situated on the railway between Cam- 
peche and Merida, 38 kilometers northeast from Campeche. 

Campeche, population 23,588, is the smallest, but also the richest, of 
the five partidos, the chief town of which, Campeche de Baranda, pop- 
ulation 16,647, is also the capital of the State. It is situated on the 
Gulf of Mexico, 1,320 kilometers from Mexico City, 930 from Vera- 
cruz, and 164 from Merida. This city is the second in importance on 
the peninsula of Yucatan and is one of the richest and most beautiful 
on the Gulf. The Campeche wharf is 150 feet long, but owing to the 
fact that the depth of the harbor is only about 10 feet, heavily laden 
ships can not anchor there. Among the principal buildings are the City 
Hall, the Government Building, the hospital, a bank, a theater, the 
market, and several churches. There are also a fine park and public 
gardens, schools, and colleges, with a public library containing 3,600 
volumes and a museum of natural history and an achseological museum. 
The leading industries of the partidos are commerce, agriculture, fish- 
eries, the exploitation of the salt deposits, etc. An active commerce is 
maintained with the Mexican ports of Veracruz, Frontera, Carmen, and 
Progreso, and also with the ports of Havre, New York, and Santander, 
the main exports being hemp, dyewoods, salt, etc. In the city of Can]- 
peche are two street railway lines, measuring 2 kilometers and 2.8 kilo- 
meters, respectively, and from that point are lines running to Lerma 
and Merida, the former being 6 kilometers in length and the latter 53 
kilometers. The following lines of steamers touch at Campeche: New 
York and Cuba Mail Steamship Company, from New York; the Har- 
rison Line, from Liverpool and New Orleans, and Escalante e Hijo, 
(Mexican) from home ports. 

The partido of Champoton, population 7,781, has a town of the same 
name for its industrial center, situated on the Gulf of Mexico, 60 kilo- 
meters southwest of Campeche. 

The partido of El Carmen, population 16,943, with a principal town 
and port of the same name, situated 1,152 kilometers from Mexico 
City, and 168 kilometers from Campeche, comprises one of the richest 
and most important sections of the State, being celebrated for its dye 
and precious woods. There are several lakes in the partido, and it is 
said that the harbor of Carmen is the best on the Mexican Gulf. The 
commercial movement is estimated at about $1,500,000 per annum, as 
it is the port of departure for the exports of forest products for the 
entire State. 



78 MEXICO. 

Partido of Bolanchen or Los Chenes, population 5,734, has for its 
principal town Bolonclienticul, situated 62 kilometers east of Campeche. 
The celebrated cavern of Bolonchenticul is found 2 kilometers west 
of the city. In it are seven wells, from which the people obtain their 
water supply when the public wells fail, respectively called in tlie 
Maj^a language, Chac-ha (red water), on account of the color; PiLxalhd 
(escaping water), because of the ebb and flow of the well, the waters 
receding at certain periods; Say ah (spring- water); Akab-hd (dark 
waters), because of the obscurity of the place; Choco-hd (hot water); 
Oxil-hd (milk water); and Ohimez-hd (insect water), because of the 
insect chimez which abounds in great numbers at the well. The cave 
is entered by means of ladders made of branches of trees, and its depth, 
to the first well, has been estimated at 1,400 feet. 

CHIAPAS. 

The State of Chiapas, population 360,799, whose capital is Tuxla 
Gutierrez, 530 meters above the sea level, population 22,536, lies to 
the southeast of Mexico City on the Guatemalan boundary. It is one 
of the tropical sections and has a great future as an agricultural coun- 
try, the wealth of its flora being little short of marvelous. 

Boundaries. — ^The boundaries are the State of Tabasco on the north, 
Veracruz and Oaxaca on the west, the Pacific Ocean on the south, and 
the Republic of Guatemala on the east. Its area is about 70,524 square 
kilometers. 

Situation.- — The southern portion of the State is traversed by the 
Sierra Madre Range, which is a continuation of the Andes of South 
and Central America. To the south of this range extends a narrow 
strip of land, vaiying- from 10 to 39 kilometers in width and reaching 
to th& Pacific Ocean, which forms one of the most fertile regions of 
the Mexican hot lands, where cacao, coffee, indigo, sugar cane, etc., 
thrive, and forests of cabinet and dye woods, medicinal plants, palm 
trees, mangrove, and timber are abundant. All this section is irri- 
gated by numerous rivers draining into the Pacific from the slopes of 
the Sierra Madre. The volcano of Tacana, whose snowy peak is 3,990 
meters above the level of the sea, rises in this region, and on its slopes 
are cultivated potatoes, wheat, and other products of the cold zone. 
The boundary line between Mexico and Guatemala crosses the top of 
Tacana. The Pacific Ocean bathes the coasts of Chiapas for a distance 
of 220 kilometers, from its Oaxaca boundary line to the bar of the 
Sachinate River, on the Guatemalan boundary. The coasts are gen- 
erally low and sandy and well sheltered, and do not present any obsta- 
cles to navigation. 

Climate. — Although the entire territory of Chiapas belongs to the 
torrid zone, the climate varies according to the altitude, being hot on 
the coast and the lands irrigated by the Chiapas River; humid and 



I 



CHIAPAS. 79 

unhealthy on the low marshy lands, especially at Tonala, cold in the 
valley of San Cristobal, and in the rest of the State it is generally 
temperate. Rain is abundant, except in the departments of Comitan, 
Chiapas, La Libertad, and Tuxla Gutierrez. There are occasional 
frosts in the valley of San Cristobal, but other sections of the State 
are rarely if ever visited by them. The winds are very variable. 
Malarial fevers, typhus, smallpox, and affections of the respiratory 
and digestive organs are the most common diseases. 

Topography. — The Andes Range from Central America traverses 
the State, running almost parallel to the coast, at a distance varying 
from 8 to 39 kilometers. This range is called the Sierra Madre, and 
from its main line several branches diverge, encompassing the fertile 
open valleys of Custepeques, Jiguipilas, Zintalapa, and Chiapas, and 
the inclosed valley of San Cristobal. In addition to the volcano of 
Tacana other remarkable mountains are the Tres Picos, north of 
Tonala, and the Gineta, on the Oaxaca boundary line. There are also 
the Cungozoe or Plumas and other small ranges. The eastern plains 
of Chiapas, known as the " Desierto de los Lacandones," have not yet 
been thoroughly explored. They are irrigated by the Usumacinta 
River, To the west of the Chiapas Valley lies that of Zintalapa, 
which is a desert tract of land, being an extension of the swampy 
region south of the Chimalapa Mountains in the State of Oaxaca. 

Hydrography.- — Chiapas is one of the least irrigated sections of the 
Mexican Republic. The principal river is the Chiapa or Mezcalapa, 
which has its origin on Guatemalan territory. It enters the State of 
Chiapas near Amatenango^ traverses the central part of the State in a 
northwesterly direction, and jfinally empties into the Gulf of Mexico 
in the vicinity of Frontera (State of Tabasco), having in its entire 
extent a length of 654 kilometers. It is known by several names in 
the different parts of its course, irrigates the principal sections of the 
State, and is the boundary between Chiapas, Veracruz and Tabasco. 
This river receives the waters of numerous affluents and, on account 
of the strong currents and the large volume of water contributed by 
its branches, is navigable throughout a great portion of its extent. 
The Usumacinta River, which irrigates the northwestern section of 
the State, rises in Guatemala, between which Republic and Chiapas it 
forms the boundary line. Its many branches are navigable through- 
out, and serve as irrigating streams for the '"lacandones" land and the 
States of Campeche and Tabasco. Its final outlet is into the Gulf 
of Mexico, after a course of 650 kilometers. The two rivers above 
named constitute the hydrographic system of the State, the Chiapas 
traversing it for a distance of 390 kilometers, while the other rivers 
and streams are of minor importance. The Lake of Chiapas or 
Tepancuapan, situated 45 kilometers west of the city of Comitan, 
1,447 meters above the level of the Pacific Ocean, belongs to the 



80 MEXICO. 

fluvial system of the Usumacinta River. Its extent is 11 kilometers 
east and Avest and 5 kilometers north and south. It contains an abun- 
dance of fish. This is also the case in regard to the Lake of Islotes, 
"which lies in the immediate vicinity. Other lakes, and man}^ of lesser 
importance, are the Catazaya and Jumajab. 

Fauna and Flora. — The fauna of the State is rich and varied, 
embracing- 60 species of mammals, 100 birds, 1:0 reptiles, 9 batrachians, 
10 fishes, and numberless insects, myriapoda, crustaceans, mollusks, 
corals, sponges, etc. The cochineal {coccus cacti) is most abundant, as 
is also the mollusk called Aplisia deinlans., used b}'^ the Indians as a 
dye substance. This is said to be the same dye known to the ancients 
as lepiis marinus., from which they extracted the purple of Tyre, in 
Asia Minor. The flora is equall}" rich, comprising over TO classes of 
cabinet woods, 50 different kinds of timber, 10 varieties of fruits, 30 
textile plants, 22 tanning plants, roots, leaves, and barks, 25 oleagi- 
nous plants, 36 dyewoods, 15 forage and 15 poisonous plants, 30 gums 
and resins, and many varieties of medicinal plants and ornamental 
flowers. 

Resources. — The main industries of the State are agriculture and 
commerce, which occup}" the first rank; forest exploitation, stock 
raising, and the development of the salt deposits of the coast. Among 
the principal cultivated products are coffee, cacao, tobacco, sugar cane, 
and indigo. Mexican official statistics for 1902 give the following 
figures in regard to the production of these articles for the period to ; 
which reference is made: 



Kilograms. 



Value. 



Cacao 

Coffee 

Tobacco 

Sugar cane and products , 
Indigo 



1, 551, 705 

4, 330, 818 

283, 670 

48,031,630 

57, 250 



81, 143, 182 

1, 143, 228 

44, 232 

1, 885, 553 

108, 963 



Romero, in his report on Coffee Culture on the Southern Coast of 
Chiapas,* estimated that a coffee plantation in Soconusco would yield 
in the fifth year, and eveiy j^ear thereafter, a profit of 135.19 per cent 
on the capital invested during the four first years. Cacao jdelds four 
crops a year in the State, the principal crop being in May and the other 
three in August, November, and February. It also grows wild at the 
highest altitudes, where it is known under the name of "wild cacao. 
It is stated that the Soconusco cacao is the best variety obtainable. 

The tobacco of Mapazfcepel and Simojovel is, according to experts] 
as good as the product from Tuxla (Veracruz) and Huimanguillc 
(Tabasco). The indigo from the department of Tonala is very fine, andJ 
is sent abroad almost in its entirety. 

The climate and soil are adapted to the cultivation of fruits of al 

« Coffee and Rubber Culture in Mexico. — New York, 1898, 



CHIAPAS. . 81 

kinds, the mulberry tree and the vine. Rubber grows wild throughout 
the State. Stock raising, although immense facilities are afforded by 
nature, has not been developed to the extent it deserves. There are, 
however, herds of cattle of all kinds, and the department of Tuxla 
Gutierrez is noted for the manufacture of round cheeses equal if not 
superior to the Edam or Holland cheese. 

Mining. — The mining wealth of Chiapas has neither been properly 
explored nor exploited; the most trustworthy data, however, show 
that gold and copper are found in certain places in the Sierra Madre 
Range; iron, lead, talcum, and coal in the valley of San Cristobal, and 
asphalt, sulphur, sulphate of sodium, gypsum, alabaster, nitrate of 
soda, salt, yellow amber, etc., in various sections. The salt deposits of 
Tonala, Cuztepeques, and Soconusco 3"ield an abundant supply of that 
mineral, many persons being engaged in developing this source of 
wealth. It is said that the Sierra Madre range also contains silver, 
lead, and iron mines. The mining production of the State in 1902 is 
officially valued at 1340,000. 

Trade. — Chiapas exports to other States of the Republic, to Guate- 
mala, the United States, and Europe. The value of its trade with 
Guatemala and the States of Tabasco and Oaxaca may be estimated at 
about $2,000,000 annually, of which about $800,000 is credited to 
imports and the rest to exports. To Guatemala is sent cattle of all 
kinds; to Oaxaca, coffee, tobacco, etc.; to Mexico City, cacao, cheese, 
and tobacco; to San Francisco, Cal., coffee, indigo, woods, and fruits; 
to Europe, indigo and minerals. The imports of the State are cotton, 
woolen, silk, and linen goods, wines and liquors, arms and ammuni- 
tion, petroleum, canned goods, sewing machines, machinery and agri- 
cultural implements, dyes and medicinal products, paper, books, etc. 
The principal custom-houses are situated at Soconusco and Tonala. 

Communications. — Three concessions have been granted for the con- 
struction of railways through the State: One from San Juan Bautista 
to El Paso de Tamulte, another from the port of San Benito to Tapa- 
chula, and another from the port of Tonala to Frontera (Tabasco), 
passing through Tuxla Gutierrez. There are telegraph and telephone 
lines, an efficient mail service, and fine wagon roads throughout the 
State. 

Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are: The man- 
ufacture of the products of sugar cane, such as rum, sugar, molasses, 
etc. ; cheese, hats, mats, cotton and woolen fabrics, cigars, soaps, can- 
dles, and the tanning of hides. 

Divisions. — The State is divided politically into 11 departments and 
101 municipalities. The departments are: 

Pichucalco, population, 26,171; chief town, Pichucalco, 114 kilo- 
meters southwest of San Juan Bautista and 357 kilometers southwest 
of Frontera (Tabasco). 
509a— 04 6 



82 MEXICO. 

Simojovel, population, 25,562; chief town, Simojovel, 1,076 Ivilo- 
meters east-southeast of Mexico City, 84 kilometers northwest of San 
Cristobal, and 172 kilometers southeast of San Juan Bautista. 

Palenque, population, 16,808; chief town, Catazaja, 120 and 124 
kilometers northwest and northeast of Frontera (Tabasco) and Carmen 
or Laguna (Campeche); another important town in the department is 
Palenque, 230 kilometers from San Cristobal and 316 kilometers from 
Tuxla, its neighborhood being celebrated for the Palenque ruins, which 
contain remnants of the Maya civilization. 

Chilon, population, 35,434; chief town, Ocosingo, 100 kilometers 
northeast of San Cristobal and 188 kilometers northeast of Tuxla 
Gutierrez. 

Comitan, population, 43,876; chief town, Comitan, 1,337 kilometers 
from Mexico Cit}', 84 kilometers from San Cristobal, 88 kilometers 
from Tuxla, and 19 kilometers from the frontier custom-house of 
Zapatula; is on the Rio Blanco, and the commercial center of the State. 

Soconusco, population, 36,641; chief town, Tapachula, on the 
Coatan, 1,250 kilometers from Mexico City, 130 kilometers from 
Quezaltenango (Guatemala); another important town being the port 
of Soconusco or San Benito, 35 kilometers southwest of Tapachula, 
the principal traffic of which is carried on with Guatemala, Panama, 
and San Francisco, Cal. 

Tonala, population, 12,258; chief town, Tonala, one of the best 
ports on the Pacific coast, 200 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez and 
370 kilometers from San Cristobal (it being the natural port for these 
two cities), 998 kilometers from Mexico City, 508 kilometers from 
Oaxaca, and 139 kilometers from Tehuantepec. The railway from 
Tonala to Tuxla Gutierrez, San Cristobal, and Frontera starts from 
this point. The city also has a maritime custom-house and a number 
of foreign business houses, mainly American and German. It carries 
on an active trade with San Francisco, Cal., and the ports of Central 
America. This trade is valued at over $300,000 annually, of which 
$200,000 is credited to exports and the remainder to imports. The 
Pacific Mail connects the port with other Pacific ports. 

Tuxla Gutierrez, population 22,558; chief town, Tuxla Gutierrez. 
This town is the capital of the State, with 10,982 inhabitants, and lies 
5 kilometers from the river Sabinas, 220 kilometers from the port of 
Tonala on the Pacific, 170 kilometers from San Cristobal, 344 kilome- 
ters from San Juan Bautista, 487 kilometers from Frontera (Tabasco), 
and 1,115 kilometers from Mexico City. Its climate is temperate and 
healthy. It is an important commercial and manufacturing center, to 
be connected with both the Gulf and the Pacific coasts b}^ the Tonala 
and Frontera Railway. The principal buildings are the Government 
Palace, the theater, the high school, and the hospital. Its main indus- 
tries are tanning, the preparation of indigo, the manufacture of round 
cheeses, and commerce. 



CHIHUAHUA. 83 

Mezcalapa or Progreso, population 12,635, whose chief town, Copai- 
nala, is 84 kilometers from,Tuxla Gutierrez. 

Chiapa, population 19,014, the chief town, Chiapa de Corzo, being 
situated 12 kilometers from Tuxla Gutierrez, 85 kilometers from San 
Cristobal, 232 kilometers from the port of Tonala, and 1,127 kilome- 
ters from Mexico City. 

Libertad, population 18,215; its chief town is San Bartolome de los 
Llanos, situated in a fertile plain 70 kilometers from the capital of the 
State and 310 from the port of Tonala. 

San Cristobal or El Centro, population 31,783, whos-e principal town, 
San Cristobal de las Casas, was until 1892 the capital of the State, and 
consequently is one of the most important towns in the department. 
Among its buildings are the Cathedral, the old and new Government 
palaces, the Institute of Arts and Sciences, the Episcopal Palace, the 
Seminary, the theater, the hospital, and the Public Library, which 
contains upward of 4,000 volumes. The city is 1,203 kilometers dis- 
tant from the capital of the Republic, 86 kilometers from the State 
capital, 370 kilometers from Tonala, 850 kilometers from Veracruz 
by land, 538 kilometers from San Jose (Guatemala), 736 kilometers 
from Merida (Yucatan), and 746 kilometers from Oaxaca. Agricul- 
ture, stock raising, and manual industries are the principal sources of 
wealth of the city and department. 

CHIHUAHUA. 

The State of Chihuahua, whose capital is the city of the same name, 
at an altitude of 1,516 meters, has a population of 327,784 persons, 
8,000 of whom are Indians belonging principally to the Tarahumara 
race. It is not only the largest of the 27 States of the Republic, but 
is also one of the richest in natural resources. Its area is 233,094 
square kilometers, or about three times that of the State of New York. 
This vast area is but sparsely populated, containing only 1.15 inhabit- 
ants to the square kilometer, while the State of Penns^dvania, about 
one-third its size, has 140.1 inhabitants to the square mile. 

Boundaries. — Its northern boundar}^ is formed by the Rio Grande 
River, which separates the State from the United States. It is bounded 
on the east b}^ Coahuila, on the south by Durango, and on the west by 
Sinaloa and Sonora. 

Situation. — The State is situated on an undulating table-land, the 
elevation of which varies from 3,500 to 7,000 feet above the level of 
the sea. Mountain peaks abound in the Sierra Madre range, which 
traverses the State. Some of the principal peaks, situated in that part 
of the range known as Sierra de Tarahumares, with their elevations 
above sea level, are Jesus y Maria, 2,511 feet; Mesa de Tabascotes, 
2,359 feet, and Bufa de Cerro Prieto, 2,811 feet. Among the plains of 
greater area lying between the mountain peaks and ranges are the 
Chilicote, the Gigantes, and Bolson de Mapimi. 



84 MEXICO. 

Climate. — The climate of the entire State is salubrious and health- 
ful. The summers are long, and for a few months considerable heat 
is felt in the lower elevations during- the middle of the da}^, but the 
nio-hts are alwa3^s cool and pleasant. During the short winters, espe- 
cially in the elevated portions of the table-lands, frosts frequently 
occur, and sometimes snow falls. Considerable rain falls during the 
summer, but in winter the precipitation is very light. 

Resources. — Notwithstanding large portions of this State are alread}^ 
under cultivation, there are still hundreds of thousands of acres of 
good land that could be utilized by irrigation and rendered exceedingly 
productive. Its mountains, rich in ores and mineral wefflth, offer an 
inviting field to the capitalist, prospector, and miner. In a word, 
capital and labor will find in the rich and progressive State of Chihua- 
hua unbounded opportunities for profitable investment and employ- 
ment. Coal exists in various localities, but most of the mines, lacking 
good transportation facilities, have been but little developed. 

Agriculture. — Chihuahua produces corn, wheat, rye, oats, potatoes, 
beans, vegetables, and most of the fruits of the temperate zone. Cot- 
ton is grown along the borders of some of the lower rivers with great 
success. Latest available oflicial statistics for 1901 give the follow- 
ing figures for the principal agricultural products of the State: 
Cereals, 13,506,488, of which over $1,500,000 is represented by wheat 
to the quantity of 20,000,000 kilos; maguey products, $180,000, and 
textile fibers, $20,000. The principal source of industry, however, is 
the raising of cattle, sheep, horses, and mules. Haciendas of several 
hundred square miles, producing as man}^ as 20,000 head of cattle, 
horses, etc., are common. It is estimated that on some of the large 
ranches there are branded from 30,000 to 40,000 calves yearlj^ Besides 
mesquite and similar trees, which grow everywhere, cedar is found in 
the Sierra Madre, while in some parts of the State vast forests of oak 
and pine cover the mountain slopes. There are several Mormon 
colonies in Chihuahua, all of which are in a flourishing condition. 
These colonies are rapidly becoming an important factor in the agri- 
cultural development of the country. 

Mining. — The mineral riches of Chihuahua are probablj^ not sur- 
passed by any other State of the Republic. Millions of dollars' worth 
of gold, silver, copper, and lead ores are mined annuall}", and the out- 
put is constantly increasing. Large quantities of these ores are treated 
in the smelting and reduction works of the State and elsewhere in the 
Republic. The number of mining claims registered during the year 
ending December 31, 1901, is ofi^iciall}^ given at 2,019 claims, covering 
an extension of 19,759 hectares. For the year ending December 31, 
1902, the number of claims registered was 2,550, covering an area of 
27,773 hectares. The extension of the Rio Grande, Sierre Madre and 
Pacific Railway and the completion of the Chihuahua and Pacific Rail- 
way, now in course of construction, together with the utilizing of 



CHIHUAHUA. 



85 



newly discovered reduction processes in the treating of ores, will be 
of great force in the development of the State. Among the numerous 
known mining districts, all noted for their abundant production of 
ores, the most noteworthy are Santa Eulalia, Parral, Minas, Nuevas, 
Palmarejo, Uruapan, Guazapares, Cusihuiriachic, Batopilas, Cerro 
Colorado, Corralitos, etc. The official estimate of the mining pro- 
duction of the State for 1902 gives the following data: Number of 
mines in operation, 62; total production, 160,293,277 kilograms, valued 
at $13,617,315. The mines in operation were of gold, silver, copper, 
lead, and iron. 

Trade. — Lying directly south of the United States, the State of 
Chihuahua is exceedingly well situated for the carrying on of inter- 
national trade. Cattle, sheep, and hogs are exported annuall}^ in con- 
siderable numbers to the United States. Though this industry is as 
yet in its infanc}^, under proper conditions and encouragement it could 
be increased and developed to immense proportions. 

Communications. — The main line of the Mexican Central Railway 
extends for a distance of 850 kilometers through the State. A branch 
line of this road also traverses the important mining district of Parral. 
The Mexican Northern Railway runs from Escalon to Sierra" Mojada, 
State of Coahuila, connecting that region, rich in low-grade lead ores, 
with the Mexican Central system. The Rio Grande, Sierra Madre and 
Pacific Railway and the Chihuahua and Pacific Railway are now being 
constructed, and will unite the capital of the State with rich mining 
and agricultural sections hitherto difficult of access. Good wagon 
roads abound and connect the difierent districts with Chihuahua, the 
capital. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into ten districts, the names, prin- 
cipal towns, and population of which are as follows: 



District. 



Principal town. 



Population 
of district. 



Andres del Rio . 

Arteaga 

Bravos 

Camargo 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Iturbide 

Jimenez 

Mina , 

Rayon , 



Batopilas 

Chinipas 

Ciudad Juarez 

Santa Rosalia , 

Ciudad Guerrero 

Hidalgo del Parral 

Chihuahua (capital of the State) 

Jimenez de los Santos 

Guadalupe y Calvo 

Ocampo 



27, 996 
9,417 
12, 233 
27, 795 
25, 828 
48, 744 
104,232 
24,543 
12,717 
16, 761 



Total . 



327, 784 



The following are some of the most important towns of the State: 



Towns. 



Chihuahua (capital) 
Hidalgo del Parral.. 
Ciudad Juarez 



Number 
of inhab- 
itants. 



30, 405 

]4,74« 
8,218 



Towns. 



Ciudad Jimenez 

Rosales 

Allende 



Number 
of inhab- 
itants. 



9,318 
3,500 
3,200 



86 MEXICO. 

The city of Chihuahua is the metropolis and business center of the 
entire northwestern section of the Republic, and does a larger business 
than other Mexican towns of five times its size. Not only does it sup- 
ply the outfits for the majorit}^ of the mining camps and prospecting 
expeditions of the State, but it contains a number of banks and com- 
mercial houses engaged in all branches of business. It also has large 
manufacturing establishments. The Compania Industrial Mexicana is 
one of the largest iron foundries and machine factories in the Republic. 
The Chihuahua Brewery, one of the best constructed breweries of the 
country, has a capital of nearly 500,000 jmsos. The woolen factories, 
Concordia, La Paz, and Rio Florido, produce fine cassimeres, blankets, 
carpets, cotton goods, etc. Besides these and the Compania Minera, 
there are a number of other establishments which are favorabl}^ known 
throughout the Republic. A Federal assay ofiice is situated at Chi- 
huahua, which, according to official figures, during the year 1900-1901 
assayed silver and gold to the value of $2,520,995 for coining pur- 
poses and $1,564,098 for export, while the figures for 1901-2 are 
$2,795,408 and $1,802,640, respectively. 

COAHUILA. 

The State of Coahuila, population 296,938 — whose capital is Saltillo, 
1,627 meters above the sea, population 23,996 — is one of the largest, 
richest, and most fertile regions in the Republic; being also the third 
largest State. At is northern boundarj^ it connects with the United 
States, and although its population is at present numericall}^ small it 
is steadily increasing, owing to the great undeveloped wealth of its 
territory, which is traversed by five great railroad lines — the Interna- 
tional, the Central, the Gulf Line, the National Mexican, and the 
Northern Mexican. 

JBoimdaries. — The boundaries of the State are: On the north, the 
United States of America, from which it is separated b}^ the Rio Bravo; 
on the east, the State of Nuevo Leon; on the south, San Luis Potosi 
and Zacatecas; on the southwest and west, Durango; and on the north- 
west and west, the State of Chihuahua. Its superficial area, according 
to the latest available official publication, "Anuario Estadistico, 1902," 
is 165,099 kilometers. 

Situation. — The State, which is very irregular in outline, occupies a 
territory which, in the north, is a flat table-land, crossed by small 
ranges of mountains and hills, becoming more broken toward the south. 
The numerous branches of the Sierra Madre, in the southern and cen- 
tral portions, are very rich in minerals and form the beautiful valleys 
of Parras, Sobaco, Catarina, San Isidro, San Marcos, Alamo, Santa 
Rosa, and Hundido. The northern ranges are covered with zacate, 
certain species of the agave plant, and cacti. In the plains extending 
from the foot of these mountains northward the heat is intense, owing 



COAHUILA. 87 

to low altitude and the scarcit}^ of rain. These plains form a desert 
where the rich coal deposits of the State are found. To the southeast 
lies the beautiful and rich agricultural region known as the Laguna, 
said to contain the most fertile soil in the world. The valley of Parras, 
the foremost viticultural section, is situated in the eastern part of 
the State. The mountainous region is rich in gold, silver, iron, cop- 
per, lead, and other mineral products. The altitude varies from YOO 
to 5,800 feet above sea level, and with respect to temperature is 
divided into the hot lands, embracing the northern portions; the tem- 
perate region, which includes the southern portions and the valleys; 
and the cold region, which is the mountainous section. 

Climate. — The climate is not health}^, the most common diseases 
being malarial fevers, t3^phus, rheumatism, and affections of the respir- 
atory and digestive organs. Winds are ver}^ variable and rains abun- 
dant in the districts of Saltillo, Viesca, and Rio Grande; moderate in 
Parras, and scarce in Monclova and the lowlands. Frost is occasional 
in the southern portion of the State and very frequent in the E.io 
Grande section. 

Topography. — The principal mountain ranges are in the districts of 
E-io Grande and Monclova. There are also the Sierra del Carmen or 
Las Cruces, on the boundary line of the two districts named; the 
Sierra Madre, in the Saltillo district; the Sierra Paila, in Parras; and 
Sierra Noas, in Viesca, besides numerous ramifications of the original 
sj^stems, and small ranges and hills running in all directions. The 
different ranges run in almost parallel lines, and so close together that 
their slopes form a number of canyons, of which the principal are 
San Marcos, Santa Rosa, and El Rosario in the south, and Los Arboles 
and San Rodrigo in the north. 

Hydrography. — Owing to the vast area of the State of Coahuila and 
the paucity of rivers irrigating it, the entire extent has been con- 
sidered as a sterile country. This is true in a general wa}^, as in many 
places only natural deposits of rain waters are found; but on the other 
hand, there are extremely fertile sections, such as the "lagunas," 
thoroughly irrigated by the Nazas and Aguanaval rivers. The prin- 
cipal water courses are the Rio Bravo, or Rio Grande, forming the 
boundary line with Texas, which rises in the State of Colorado (United 
States), enters Mexican territory near Ciudad Juarez, or Paso del 
Norte, and after traversing a course of over 800 kilometers and receiv- 
ing many tributaries, finally empties into the Gulf of Mexico. Next 
in importance is the Sabinas, forming the eastern boundary between 
the districts of Monclova and Rio Grande, which rises in Sierra del 
Carmen and passing through San Juan de Salinas and Juarez enters 
the State of Nuevo Leon opposite the frontier custom-house of Gue- 
rrero, where it forms the Rio Salado, an afiiuent of the Rio Bravo. 
Other rivers are the Alamos, Monclova, Patos, Saltillo, Aguanaval, 



88 MEXICO. 

and Nazas, besides their tributaries and a great number of smaller 
streams. The principal lagoons are the Alamo, or Parras, in the dis- 
trict of Viesca; the Mayan, or Muerta, larger than the former, in the 
Parras district; the Agua Verde and the Santa Maria, in the district 
of Monclova. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State has not been thoroughl}^ 
studied on account of the great extent of territory and the scarcity of 
the population, but there are over 40 species of mammals, 70 birds, 
16 reptiles, 5 batrachians, 4 fishes, numerous insects, etc. The .flora 
comprises over 60 varieties of trees indigenous to the cold and tempe- 
rate regions and 50 belonging to the hot lands. The principal fruits 
number upward of -iO varieties, notably grapes, both white and purple, 
suitable for the manufacture of wines, alcohol, and raisins; the Parras 
district is especially famous for their production. Other fruits are 
pears, apples, peaches, etc. The number of textile plants is estimated 
at 15; tanning plants, 13; oleaginous seeds, 10; plants for dyeing pur- 
poses, 10; forage plants, 13; poisonous plants, 17; gums and resins, 12; 
medicinal plants, 70, and over 100 varieties of ornamental plants and 
flowers. 

Agriculture. — Agriculture is the principal industry of the State; 
cotton, corn, wheat, beans, pease, sugar cane, linseed, and about 30 
species of leguminous plants being the most common products. Grape 
culture is attaining greater importance daily, and it is claimed that the 
product of the district of Parras is sweeter and more delicious than 
that of California, and equal, if not superior, to the Malaga and 
Granada varieties. Oflicial statistics for 1902 estimate the amount 
of grape alcohol produced by the State at 1,883 hectoliters, valued at 
$75,320, and 7,183 hectoliters of wine, valued at $192,660; grapes, 
1,411,730 kilos, valued at $64,496; cotton, 14,073,750 kilos, at $6,666,- 
277; ixtle over 5,250,000 kilos, at $800,000; corn to the value of over 
12,000,000, and wheat about $1,500,000. Almost all the plantations 
in Coahuila are equipped with modern machiner}^ and implements and 
follow the most advanced systems of cultivation. One of the greatest 
sources of wealth is cattle raising, the plains afiording excellent pas- 
turage for the stock. Efl'orts have been made to improve the breeds 
by crossing the native cattle with fine imported specimens. Several 
foreign companies have bought lands for cattle breeding. 

Mining. — The mineral wealth of the State remained unrecognized 
until a few years ago, but its development has since been so steady 
and rapid that now mining may be said to constitute one of the chief 
industries. The wealth of Sierra Mojada, Sierra del Carmen, and the 
valle}^ of Santa Rosa is almost incredible. These mineral regions are 
in reality immense silver deposits, which, in conjunction with the- coal 
fields of Piedras Negras and Salina Valley, and the agricultural prod- 
ucts of the "Laguna," form the foundations of the future wealth of 



COAHUTLA. 89 

the State. The registered number of mines in Coahuila on the 31st 
of December, 1902, according to Mexican official figures, amounted to 
551, covering an area of 11,240 hectares, the principal minerals being- 
silver, lead, coal, copper, iron, and gold. The production of these mines 
in 1902 is officiall}^ given at 535,000,000 kilos, valued at $1,236,000. 

Trade. — Coahuila is one of the most prosperous commercial sections 
of the Republic, dae, mainly, to its railroad system, which affords the 
necessary facilities for the transportation of the State products, such 
as cotton, live stock, minerals, wines, etc. The export trade is princi- 
pally with the United States, the metallic products being forwarded 
over the Mexican Northern Railway from Sierra Mojada to Escalon, 
thence on the Mexican Central to Ciudad Juarez. Some coal is exported 
to the United States through Piedras Negras, the remainder being con- 
sumed in the country by such railways as use this fuel. Flour is sent 
to Nuevo Leon, cotton fabrics to the States of Zacatecas, Jalisco, 
Durango, Mexico, and Monterey; salt, live stock, wool, and skins to 
several Mexican States and to Texas; raw cotton, table grapes, cereals, 
etc., to several neighboring States, and ixtle and its various manufac- 
tures to the United States. The commerce of the State is in the hands 
of Americans, Spaniards, Germans, and Frenchmen. The leading mar- 
kets are Ciudad Porfirio Diaz or Piedras Negras, a customs port on 
the American frontier; Saltillo, San Pedro de la Laguna or Colonia, 
Torreon, Sierra Mojada, Monclova, Parras, and Viesca. According 
to the " Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," the value of the trade through 
the city of Porfirio Diaz during the fiscal year 1901-2 amounted to 
^,810,637 for imports and $5,67T,603 for exports. During the first 
6 months of the fiscal year 1902-3, according to the same authorit}^, the 
imports and exports through said city were |2, 745,976 and $3,004,404, 
respectively. The total trade of the State can be estimated from 
111,000,000 to $12,000,000 silver per annum. 

Communications.— Tho, railway system of the State is probably the 
best in the Republic. It is traversed by five different lines, as follows: 
The Mexican International, from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the banks of 
the Rio Bravo del Norte, opposite Eagle Pass (Texas), to the city of 
Durango, capital of the State of the same name, a distance of 869.51 
kilometers. Its main tracks are within the territory of Coahuila as 
far as Torreon, or a length of 616.55 kilometers. This railway system 
has several branches open to traffic, and others either in process of 
construction or under survey, namely, from Sabinas to Honda, 19.81 
kilometers; from Monclova to Cuatro Cienegas, 67.16 kilometers; 
from Hornos to San Pedro, 23.37 kilometers; and from Pedricena to 
Velardena, 9.35 kilometers, this last in the territory of Durango. 

The Mexican Central, which crosses the southeastern section of the 
State in the districts of Viesca and Parras, running in the former 
district over the tracks of the International from Mexico to Ciudad 



90 MEXICO. 

Juarez and in Parras over its own tracks from Lerdo to San Pedro de 
la Colonia (La Lagima line). There are several stations, the line in 
its course throug'h the State measuring 178 kilometers from San Isidro 
to Torreon or Nazas. At the latter place the Central connects with 
the International Eailway. From Lerdo (Durango) starts the branch 
known as the "La Laguna" line, whose terminal station is San Pedro 
de la Colonia, the distance between the two points being 63.4 kilo- 
meters. The tracks leave the territory of Coahuila after passing the 
station of Jalisco, and after traversing a section of Durango return to 
Coahuila bej^ond the Caiion de Picardias. 

The Northern Mexican is essentially for the mining district, and 
covers a distance of 125 kilometers from Escalon (Chihuahua) to Sierra 
Mojada. 

The Monterey and Gulf Railway runs from Monterey to Trevino or 
Yenadito, a distance of 106 kilometers. 

The National Mexican runs from Ventura to La Mariposa, 162 kilo- 
meters, passing through Saltillo. In addition there is a line projected 
to run direct from Monterey (Nuevo Leon) to the city of Porfirio 
Diaz, and another line is being constructed from Saltillo to Concepcion 
del Oro. 

Besides the railroads there are excellent wagon roads as follows: 
From Mexico City to Saltillo, 925.61: kilometers; Saltillo to Monterey, 
105 kilometers; to Zacatecas, 480 kilometers; to Durango, 507 kilo- 
meters; to Chihuahua, 909 kilometers; to Zaragoza or Rio Grande 
and the shores of the Rio Bravo, 500 kilometers; to San Antonio, 
Tex., 864 kilometers, and from Zaragoza to Sancti Spiritus, Tex., 
1,032 kilometers. 

The telegraphic network of the State covers an area of about 2,000 
kilometers, while telephone lines extend over more than 100 kilo- 
meters. The mail service is very efficient. 

Indtistries. — The principal manufacturing industry is the manufacture 
of cotton and knitted goods, there being in the State on December 31, 
1901, 51,648 spindles and 1,715 looms, the quantity of cotton consumed 
during the year amounting to 2,082,130 kilograms, the output being 
estimated at 549,373 pieces of printed goods and 60,000 kilograms 
twine. Other manufacturing industries are wines, tanned skins and 
hides, soap, candles, cheese, shoes, molasses, furniture, pottery, car- 
riages, wagons, and chocolate. 

Divisions. — The State of Coahuila is divided into 5 districts, subdi- 
vided into 33 municipalities. The districts are as follows: 

Monclova, population 75,433; chief town Monclova, on the river of 
the same name, is situated in the midst of fertile farm lands, on the 
line of the International Railroad, 238 kilometers southwest of Ciudad 
Porfirio Diaz, 370 kilometers from Torreon, 1,514 from Mexico City 
by rail, and 170 kilometers distant from Saltillo. The other leading 



COAHUILA. 91 

towns in the district are Muzquis, Cuatro Ciengas, Sierra Mojada — an 
important mining town, 420 kilometers from Saltillo, and one of the 
terminal stations of the Northern Railway, whose exports of lead and 
iron ores to the United States are estimated at about $300,000 per 
annum — and Candela or Romero Rubio. The International and North- 
ern Mexican railways traverse the district, the former running in a 
southeasterly direction and the latter toward the southwest. 

Rio Grande, population -±6,851; its chief town, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz 
(formerly Piedras Negras), 7,888 inhabitants, is situated 1,Y52 kilome- 
ters from Mexico City, 180 kilometers from Saltillo, and 65 kilometers 
from Zaragoza. This district is on the boundary line between Mexico 
and the State of Texas, and its capital lies directly opposite Eagle 
Pass, T^ith which it is connected by the great "international bridge" 
across the Rio Bravo, belonging to the International Railway. It is 
an iron structure, 539.90 meters in length. The city has five public 
buildings and is an important customs port. Among the other cities 
of the district are Zaragoza, on the Rio Grande, 65 kilometers from 
Porfirio Diaz and 11 kilometers north of Saltillo; Guerrero, 562 kilo- 
meters from Saltillo and 52 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz; Morelos, 
Allende, and Nova. 

Saltillo, or El Centro, population 73,157; chief town Saltillo, or 
Leona Vicario, 23,996 inhabitants (also the capital of the State), 865 
kilometers from Mexico City by the wagon road and 971 by rail, and 
179 kilometers from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the International Rail- 
way. It is one of the stations of the Mexican National Railroad and is 
the principal industrial and commercial center of the State. The prin- 
cipal buildings are the government palace, the Zaragoza theater, the 
municipal palace, the Catholic Cathedral, the penitentiary, the hospital, 
the American consulate, and several others. The State college, called 
"Ateneo Fuente," has a good museum of natural history, also a 
small but very fine public library. Saltillo is noted for the manufac- 
ture of zarapes (shawls), made of wool, and remarkable not only for 
the fastness of their colors, but also for tasteful combination, artistic 
design, and fineness of fabric, some of them being worth as much as 
$200 to $300. Other industries are the manufacture of cotton cloth, 
knitted goods, and flour. There are several flour mills in the town 
and cotton mills run by water power. Other leading towns are Ramos 
Arizpe, 15 kilometers from Saltillo, on the Mexican National Railway, 
Artega, and Patos. 

Parras, population 53,672; its principal town, Parras de la Fuente, 
is situated 126 kilometers from Saltillo and 25 kilometers from the 
station of Pailas, on the International Railway, with which it is con- 
nected by a stage line. This town is located in a very fertile valley, 
noted for its fruit production, particularly grapes. There are cotton 
and flour mills and a factory devoted to the preparation of grape wine 



92 MEXICO. 

and o-rape rum. San Pedro de la Colonia is the second town in the 
district, situated 250 kilometers from Saltillo and 16 kilometers from 
the railwa3^ In the town are several cotton-seed oil mills, cotton gins, 
and a large factor}^ for the production of white cotton cloths, colored 
drills, toweling, etc. The Mexican International Railwaj^ traverses 
the district, stopping at seven stations. 

Viesca, population 47,826; chief town Viesca, situated 224 kilometers 
from Saltillo, 24 kilometers from Hornos, a station on the Interna- 
tional Railwa}^, with which it is connected b}' a stage line, and 73 kilo- 
meters from Torreon station. Other leading towns are Matamoros 
Laguna, 28 kilometers from Torreon station, and Torreon, an important 
railway station of the Central and the International lines, 1,136 kilo- 
meters from Mexico City, 616.55 kilometers from Porfirio Diaz, and 
272 kilometers from Saltillo. This town contains a cotton mill and a 
soap factor}^ This district is essentiall}^ a mining region, and is well 
supplied with railway facilities, the Mexican Central traversing it from 
south to northwest, a distance of 178 kilometers, and the International 
covering an extent of 53.29 kilometers from west to east. The former 
line has 9 stations and the latter 4. 

COLIMA. 

The State of Colima, population 65,115, capital Colima, 504 meters 
altitude, population 20,698 is, with the exception of Tlaxcala, the 
smallest and least populous of the Mexican States. It is situated in a 
beautiful tropical region, with a good coast line on the Pacific. 

Boundaries. — The boundaries are the State of Jalisco on the north, 
northeast, and west; the State of Michoacan on the east,- and the Pacific 
Ocean on the south. Its area is estimated at 6,114 square kilometers, 
divided as follows: Mainland, 5,928 square kilometers, and the islands 
of Revillagigedo, 186 square kilometers. 

Climate. — The climate is hot and unhealthy except in the north, 
where the snow-crowned peak of the Colima modifies the temperature. 
Rainfall is abundant, and the winds in general are from the northeast. 
Malarial fevers are prevalent in almost all sections. 

To])ogrOjphy . — The northern section of the State, occupied by the 
slopes of the Colima volcano, constitutes the mountainous part of its 
territory, the ascent from the coast rising gradually to a height of 
1,200 meters. The litoral is washed by the Pacific for an extent of 
160 kilometers. It is low and sandy and contains rich salt deposits. 
The Revillagigedo group, composed of four desert islands of volcanic 
origin, named Socorro, San Benedicto, Rosa Partida, and Clarion, lies 
240 kilometers northwest of Manzanillo. 

Hydrograjyhy. — The irrigating streams are the Armeria and Coahua- 
yana rivers and their afiluents. The former traverses the center of 
the State from north to south, emptying into the Pacific through the 



COLIMA. 93 

mouth of the Pascuales after a course of 294 kilometers, its navigable 
extent only reaching 18 or 20 kilometers from the mouth. The Coa- 
huajana forms the natural boundary line between the States of Michoa- 
can and Colima. In addition to the water courses above mentioned 
there are the lakes of Cuyutlan and Alcuzagiie. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State, although rich and varied, 
is little known. There are about 50 species of mammals, over 100 
birds, 32 reptiles, 7 batrachians, 50 fishes, and numberless insects of 
all kinds, besides corals and sponges and 12 species of mollusks. The 
flora embraces over 170 species of trees, 60 fruits, 25 textiles, 20 tan- 
ning plants, 12 oleaginous seeds, 23 dye plants, about 20 forage plants, 
9 poisonous plants, 40 aromatic, 100 medicinal, 22 gums and resins, 
and a great number of ornamental shrubs and flowers. 

Resources. — The principal industries are agriculture, stock raising, 
and the exploitation of the salt deposits. The fertility of the soil, due 
to its fine natural irrigation, permits the culture of various products, 
among others coffee, cacao, tobacco, rice, cotton, indigo, sugar cane, 
cereals, and leguminous plants. The coffee of Colima is regarded in 
Germany as the best on the market. Official figures, from Mexican 
sources, estimate its production in 1902 at 160,860 kilos, valued at 
$81,257. In the same year cacao was quoted at 2,000 kilos, at $2,000; 
tobacco, 126,715 kilos, at $14,553; indigo, 3,442 kilos, at $7,426, and 
cotton, 197,800 kilos, at $25,625. For the development of its agricul- 
tural wealth the State is greatly in need of colonists. The mineral 
wealth lies principall}'^ in the salt deposits, which extend all along the 
coast. There are also mines of silver, gold, copper, and sulphur. 

Trade. — Colima carries on an active trade with the towns south of 
Jalisco, with Guadalajara, Mazatlan, and other Mexican ports, and 
with the foreign ports of San Francisco and San Diego (California), 
also with Germany and the Hawaiian Islands. The maritime trade is 
conducted through the port of Manzanillo, and consists chiefly of 
exports of rice, coffee, rubber, fruits, cabinet woods, dyewoods, corn, 
hides and skins, minerals, etc. , the imports being woolen, linen, and 
silk goods, alimentary products, glassware, arms and ammunition, 
wines and liquors, etc. Overland traffic is carried on by rail from 
Manzanillo to Colima and to Villa Alvarez; in other instances, by 
wagon roads. The total travel of the State is estimated at a value of 
about $2,000,000 per annum. 

Communications. — The railway of the Compania Constructora 
Nacional Mexicana (Mexican National Railway) crosses the State over 
the tracks of the International Line from Colima to Manzanillo, a dis- 
tance of 95 kilometers. A branch from Colima to Guadalajara is in 
process of construction. Another railroad runs from Colima to Villa 
Alvarez, 6,000 meters in length, and a tramwa}^ 1,100 meters long- 
connects Colima with the railroad stations. Telegraph and telephone 



94 MEXICO. 

service are excellent, and the mail service is very efficient. The 
"Pacific Mail," the "Eed Line," the "Izaguirre," and the Sinaloa and 
Durango Railroad Companj^'s steamers connect the port of Manzanillo 
with foreign and domestic ports, while good wagon roads run from 
Colima to Mexico City and the principal towns of the adjacent States. 

Divisions. — Colima is divided into 3 partidos, subdivided into 7 
municipalities, as follows: Partido del Centro, Partido de Villa Alva- 
rez, and Partido de Medellin. 

The Partido del Centro, population 41,Y63, embraces the municipali- 
ties of Colima, Coquimatlan, and Ixtlahuacan. The principal town of 
the municipality of Colima bears the same name, and is the capital of 
the State. According to the last census the population of the capital 
was 20,698 inhabitants. It is situated in a beautiful and fertile valley, 
504 meters above the sea level, which is irrigated by the Colima River, 
and is one of the handsomest towns on the Pacific coast. The prin- 
cipal buildings are the city hall, the theater, the cathedral, a new 
market house, and the station of the Mexican National Railroad. It 
is the commercial center of the State, being distant about 91.5 kilo- 
meters from the capital of the Republic, and possesses a street-car 
line and an electric-lighting sj^stem. 

Coquimatlan is the chief town of the municipality of the same name, 
distant about 12 kilometers from Colima, on the Mexican National 
Railway. 

Ixtlahuacan is the principal town of the municipality of that name, 
and is about 142 kilometers from Colima. 

The Partido de Villa Alvarez or Almoloyan, population 16,400, 
embraces a municipality of the same name and that of Comala. Almo- 
loyan, or Villa Alvarez, is the capital of the former, and is 4 kilometers 
from Colima, with which it is connected by a railway 6 kilometers in 
length. The chief town of Comala bears the same name as the munici- 
pality, and is 12 kilometers from Colima and 10 from Villa Alvarez. 

The Partido de Medellin, population 6,996, comprises the munici- 
palities of Manzanillo and Tecoman, their chief towns bearing the same 
names. Tecoman is situated 45 kilometers from Colima, on the Mex- 
ican National Railroad. Manzanillo is one of the leading towns of the 
State, and is situated 861 kilometers from Mexico City, 122 kilometers 
from Colima, and 374 kilometers from Guadalajara. It has a large, 
sheltered harbor, the town being built on the isthmus which separates 
the waters of the port from those of Cuyutlan. It is connected with 
the capital by the Mexican National Railway, a distance of 94.5 kilo- 
meters. The foreign trade of the port is estimated at about $450,000, 
divided equally between imports and exports. The Pacific Mail Steam- 
ship Company connects it with San Francisco (California) and Panama 
(Colombia), and the steamers of the " Red" Line, Izaguirre & Co., and 
of the Sinaloa and Durango Railroad Company transport merchandise 



DURANGO. 95 

between Manzanillo and the home ports. The custom-house of the 
State is located at Manzanillo. 

DURANGO. 

The State of Durango, population 370,294, with a capital city 2,100 
meters altitude, bearing the same name, is one of the largest and 
richest States in the Republic. It is situated north of the torrid zone, 
on the slopes of the Sierra Madre Mountains. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are Chihuahua on the north, Coahuila 
on the east and southeast, Zacatecas and the Territory of Tepic on the 
south, and Sinaloa on the west. The area, according to the "Anuario 
Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana," 1902, covers 109,495 square 
kilometers. 

Climate. — The climatic conditions of the State vary with the respec- 
tive altitudes of the localities. The western portions, traversed by the 
Sierra Madre Mountains, are cold; the region of the valleys and plains, 
extending from the base of the mountains, is temperate, and in some 
places rather warm, while the Nazas basin is temperate; the pasture 
lands are exposed to great variations, being extremely cold in winter 
and very hot in summer. Rainfall is moderate, and frosts are frequent 
in the mountains. The most common ailments are fevers and affec- 
tions of the respiratory and digestive organs. 

To'pograjjhy. — Owing to the topographical conditions, the products 
of the hot, temperate, and cold zones can be cultivated. The western 
and southern portions are mountainous, being traversed by the Sierra 
Madre Mountains. The mean altitude varies from 2,500 to 3,500 
meters, the highest point being the peak of Muinoxa. The crest of 
the Sierra Madre is formed by the convergence of several high moun- 
tain ranges which rise in the western part of the State, the principal 
being Copolquina, Topia, Cavelas, Amacuti, Tominil, Muinora, Gua- 
naccoi, and San Juan de Camarones. These mountains are all rich in 
minerals, mainly gold, silver, and lead. Other mountains are the 
Mesquital, Oso, Inde, Candela, San Francisco, Cuencame, and Noas. 
The principal isolated peaks are Cerro del Mercado, an inexhaustible 
iron deposit north of the city of Durango; Cerro del Fraile, an extinct 
volcano; Pichihuantepec, and Panuco de Avino, which contains an 
immense silver deposit. The Sierra Madre Mountains are rich in 
minerals, while the valleys in the eastern section are well irrigated and 
fertile. 

Hydrography. — The most important river is the Nazas, in the north- 
ern part of the State. It rises on the eastern slope of the Sierra 
Madre and empties into Habas Lake, after a course of 600 kilometers. 
Its principal affluents are the Santiago and San Juan rivers, the for- 
mer traversing an extent of 215 kilometers before its junction with 
the main stream. The Tuna! River rises west of the city of Durango, 



96 MEXICO. 

and after a course of 150 kilometers enters the Territory of Tepic. 
The Suchil, or Nombre de Dios, an affluent of the Tunal; the Rio 
Chico, or Alaponeta, and the Aguanaval are the other most important 
streams. There are also some small lakes, the principal being Colo- 
rado, Guatimape, Ojo de Agua, Sanceda, Inde, Cuencame, and Atoto- 
nilco. Near the city of Durango there is a fine mineral spring, 
holding in solution a large quantity of iron. 

Fauna and -flora. — The fauna of the State, although rich and 
varied, is not well known. The principal species -embrace about 40 
mammals, 70 birds, 13 reptiles, 7 batrachians, and a large number of 
insects. The floral varieties are equajly numerous, embracing nearly 
80 tree families, 50 fruits, 13 textiles, 12 tanning plants, 12 oleaginous 
plants, 11 dye plants, 10 forage plants, 4 poisonous and 16 aromatic 
plants, about 20 gums and resins, 30 medicinal plants, and numberless 
ornamental shrubs and flowers. 

Resources. — The principal industries of the State are agriculture, 
mining, stock raising, and commerce. The most important agricultural 
region is included in the partidos of Mapimi, Durango, San Juan del 
Rio, and Papasquiaro, the agricultural products being barley, corn, 
wheat, cotton, tobacco, fruits, leguminous plants, and sugar cane. 
Mexican official statistics for 1897 estimate the number of plantations 
or farms at 196, of which 2 are devoted to the culture of sugar cane, 157 
to cereals, 7 to mague}^ (mescal), 2 to tobacco, and 28 to stock raising. 
In 1902 the production of corn in the State was estimated at 1,584,226 
hectoliters, valued at $4,664,548; wheat, 14,930,850 kilos, valued at 
$1,176,220; cotton, 4,880,502 kilos, valued at $1,530,607; ixtle, to the 
value of $78,737; tobacco, 47,780 kilos, valued at $20,000; grapes, 
235,105 kilos, valued at $31,380. The grapes of Villa Lerdo and 
Cuencame are famous. 

The leading stock-raising sections are the partidos of Durango, El 
Ojo, Cuencame, Nazas, Inde, and Papasquiaro. The number of the 
stock is estimated, approximately, at 1,000,000 head. 

Mining. — The mining districts are the partidos of San Dimas, Tama- 
zula, Papasquiaro, San Juan del Rio, Durango, and Nombre de Dios; 
gold, copper, and silver being the leading minerals. According to 
Mexican ofiicial figures, on the 31st of December, 1902, there were 
2,469 mining claims registered in Durango, covering an area of 22,831 
hectares. The Cerro del Mercado is an inexhaustible iron deposit, 2 
kilometers north of Durango, which, according to the opinion of 
experts, "could supply all the foundries of England for a period of 
330 years." Sulphur, rubies, and other valuable deposits are also 
found. The total mining production of the State in 1902 is officially 
estimated at 349,214,262 kilos, valued at $10,724,012, the number of 
mines in operation being 107. 

Trade. — The partidos of Durango and Mapimi are the commercial 



DURANGO. 97 

centers of the State. An active trade is maintained with the States of 
Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Coahuila; also with the 
United States and Mexico Cit3^ The principal export trade consists 
in mineral ores (mainly gold, silver, and iron), cereals, cotton, woods, 
fruits, live stock, hides and skins, wools, tallow, etc., besides cotton 
and woolen goods to the States of Chihuahua and Zacatecas. Its prin- 
cipal imports are groceries, hardware, silk, cotton, wool, and linen 
goods, machiner}!', agricultural implements, mining tools, arms and 
ammunition, etc., the whole trade of the State being estimated at about 
110,000,000 per annum. The principal ports of entry for foreign 
goods are Mazatlan and the customs posts of Ciudad Porfirio Diaz and 
Paso del Norte, or Ciudad Juarez. 

Coininwiicat'wns. — The Mexican International and the Central rail- 
roads traverse the State. The former enters through the partido of 
Mapimi, crosses Cuencame and Durango, and terminates at the State 
capital, 879 kilometers fi-om Ciudad Porfirio Diaz (Coahuila). In addi- 
tion to the main line the road has several branches. The Central Rail- 
road traverses the State on the tracks of the Mexico and Ciudad Juarez 
line. There are several concessions for branch lines. The cities of 
Durango and Villa Lerdo are equipped with street-car systems, and 
throughout the State are about 300 kilometers of telegraph and 500 
kilometers of telephone lines and an eflicient mail service. There are 
also excellent wagon roads leading to the adjacent States and to the 
City of Mexico. 

Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are tanning, the 
manufacture of Hour, of ixtle carpets, and rope, and the extraction of 
fibers; there are also good pottery works, soap and candle factories, 
foundries, distilleries, and several cotton mills representing a value of 
over 1500,000. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into 13 partidos, subdivided into 
49 municipalities. The partidos are as follows: 

Tamazula, population 32,011 ; its principal town, bearing the same 
name, is situated near the Sinaloa boundary, 123 kilometers from 
Durango. This partido is rich in minerals. 

Papasquiaro, population 11,580; its chief town, Santiago Papas- 
quiaro, is 123 kilometers from Durango. 

Inde, population 17,711, chief town, Inde, situated 316 kilometers 
from Durango, is rich in gold, sih^er, and copper mines. 

Mapimi, population 61,982; its chief town, Villa Lerdo, is the second 
city in the State, located 263 kilometers from Durango. This is one 
of the most advanced sections of the State, its agricultural wealth being 
developed by the most modern methods and representing a value of 
about $2,000,000 per annum. It also contains valuable deposits of 
silver, gold, lead, copper, and sulphur. Villa Lerdo is connected 
with the station of the Central Railroad by a tramway 1 kilometers 
509a— 04 7 



98 MEXICO. 

in leno-th, and has very fine buildings, including steam flour mills, a 
foundry, and several other industrial establishments. Mapimi is the 
next town of importance, situated 511 kil'ometers from Durango and 
25 from the Central Railroad station. This town contains six foun- 
dries, a cotton and knit-goods mill, and other industrial establishments. 

Cuencame, population 28,670, chief town of the same name, 168 
kilometers from Durango and 12 from the Pasaje station of the Inter- 
national Railway, is an agricultural, stock-raising, and mining district. 

San Juan de Guadalupe, population 11,091; its chief town, bearing 
the same name, is situated 300 kilometers from Durango, 35 kilo- 
meters from San Isidro, and 30 from the Symon station of the Central 
Railroad. 

Nombre de Dios, population 25,680, the chief town of which, bear- 
ing the same name, is situated 67 kilometers from Durango, and has 
in its vicinity cotton and woolen mills, using the waters of the Suchil 
River as motive power. ' . 

Mezquital, population 9,247; its chief town, Mezquital, is 100 kilo- 
meters from Durango. 

Durango, population 72,531; its chief town, Durango, 2,100 meters 
altitude, population 31,092, is also the capital of the State, and is sit- 
uated 918 kilometers from Mexico City, 262 from Mazatlan, 688 from 
Zacatecas, 235 kilometers b}'^ rail from the Torreon station of the Cen- 
tral Railroad, and 870 from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz. The city contains 
a chamber of commerce, a bank, and many fine buildings, notably the 
Cathedral, which is considered one of the handsomest in the Republic, 
the Government Palace, the City Hall, the theater, and the mint, 
which, according to the "Anuario Estadistico" for 1901, had coined 
from 1896 to 1901 silver to the amount of $6,861,125.47, the coinage for 
1900-1901 amounting to $1,266,273.71. Durango has over 10 kilometers 
of city and suburban railroads; electric lighting, cotton and woolen 
mills, foundries, flour and sugar-cane mills. It also contains two banks, 
one a branch of the National Bank and the other a bank of issue. 
Agriculture and stock raising are the principal industries of the par- 
tido, mining receiving very little attention. Its trade is very valuable. 
Several stations of the International Railroad are within its confines. 

San Dimas, population 6,806, its chief town bearing the same name, 
situated 144 kilometers from Durango, is one of the best-developed 
mining regions of the Sierra Madre. 

El Oro, population 16,479; its chief town. Real, or Santa Maria del 
Oro, is situated 311 kilometers from Durango, and is largely interested 
in the mining of gold, that metal being very abundant in its vicinity. 

Nazas, population 13,793; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 
situated 167 kilometers from Durango. 

San Juan del Rio, population 29,683; its chief town is San Juan del 
Rio, 104 kilometers from Durango. 



GUANAJUATO. 99 

GUANAJUATO. 

The State of Guanajuato, population 1,061,724, with a capital of the 
same name, 2,083 meters above the sea, is one of the most favored 
regions of the Republic, as it contains immense natural deposits of 
gold and silver, fertile lands, populous cities, and fine railroads, 
besides being possessed of a valuable commerce and equipped with 
almost all the latest improvements of a highly civilized country. 

Boundaries.- — The boundaries are: San Luis Potosi on the north, 
Queretaro on the east, Michoacan on the south, and Jalisco on the 
west. Its area is 28,363 square kilometers. 

Toj)ograp]iy . — The topographical aspect is varied, owing to its situ- 
ation on the Cordillera of the Anahuac, the northeast and central sec- 
tions being traversed by mountain ranges, while to the west and south 
extend the rich valleys of San Felipe, San Judas, and Santiago, and 
the fertile plain of El Bajo. The principal cordilleras traversing the 
State are the Sierra Gorda, on the northeast, and the Sierra de Guana- 
juato, in the center, which are formed by the junction of the Codor- 
nices, the San Antonio, and the Santa Rosa ranges. The highest peaks 
in the Guanajuato Mountains are the Gigante, 2,346 meters in height, 
and the Llanitos, 2,815 meters. Smaller ranges extend in various 
directions, inclosing the fertile valleys and plains of the State. 

Hydrography . — The principal rivers are the Lerma, the Laja, and 
the Turbio, the last two being affluents of the former. The Lerma 
River rises in the State of Mexico, traverses the State of Guanajuato 
for a distance of 147 kilometers, and empties into the Pacific Ocean 
near San Bias, in the Territory of Tepic. The Laja rises in the Sierra 
de Guanajuato, and, after receiving the waters of many afiluents and 
traversing a course of 126 kilometers, empties into the Lerma. The 
Turbio, or Gomez, waters a territory 113 kilometers in length from 
its rise in the Sierra de Guanajuato to its junction with the Lerma. 
This State is also irrigated by the Irapuato River and several smaller 
streams. The only lake is Yuririapundaro (lake of blood), which is 
97 square kilometers in extent and contains several small islands. 
Near the valley of Santiago there is a large circular well, known as the 
Albercas, which is believed to be the crater of an extinct volcano. Its 
waters are not potable and its depth has never been ascertained. Min- 
eral springs are abundant. 

Climate. — The climate is temperate and agreeable, except in the 
higher altitudes of the mountain ranges, the mean temperature being 
21° C. (about 70° F.), and the highest 28° C. (82.40° F.) during the hot 
months. The prevalent diseases are malarial fevers and typhus. Dur- 
ing the rainy season the rainfall is heavy in the plains and valleys and 
moderate in the mountains. This season extends from the middle of 
May until the beginning of July. The prevailing winds are from the 
northeast, changing to southeast at the approach of the rainy season. 



100 MEXICO. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State is ver}^ rich, comprising, 
in all, 510 species, divided as follows: 41 mammals, 206 birds, 11 rep- 
tiles, 15 batrachians, 7 fishes, and 118 insects. The flora is no less 
rich, embracing over 23 kinds of wood, 11 fruit trees and plants, 32 
textiles, 11 tanning plants, 15 oleaginous plants, 16 dyewoods, about 
SO medicinal plants, 12 forage plants, IS aromatic plants, 15 gums and 
resins, and numberless ornamental flowers and shrubs. 

Resou7'ces. — According to the location of the partidos, the leading 
industries are mining, agriculture, and cattle raising, the former tak- 
ing first rank in Guanajuato, La Luz, Bietona, and San Felipe, and 
agricultural and stock raising in the plains and valleys. The principal 
agricultural products are cereals and leguminous plants of all kinds, 
fruits, chili, alfalfa, and canar}^ seed, valued at about $21,000,000 per 
annum, besides which tobacco and zacaton receive considerable atten- 
tion. According to Mexican ofiicial figures, 1897, there were in the 
State 391 plantations or haciendas, of which 316 were devoted to the 
culture of cereals. The principal agricultural products of Guanajuato 
for 1902 are officially given as follows: Corn, to the value of $5,500,000 
in round figures; wheat, $2,500,000; tobacco, $18,000. 

The total value of the stock-raising industry, comprising in all about 
1,000,000 head, is estimated at $10,000,000, hogs, sheep, and goats 
forming the principal elements. The annual production of wool is 
calculated at 200,000 kilograms, worth $80,000. 

Mining. — The State of Guanajuato is one of the richest mineral 
regions in the world. The mining region follows the line of the angle 
formed by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Guanajuato, there being in 
all five mining districts, as follows: Sierra Gorda, Allende, Santa- 
cruz, Guanajuato, and Leon. According to the "Geografia 3^ Esta- 
distica," by Velasco (1890), there were 273 mines, as follows: 31 silver 
and gold, 121 silver, 11 mercury, or cinnabar, 21 tin, 5 iron, 1 lead, 
10 argentiferous lead, 3 copper, 15 argentiferous copper, 5 magistral, 
or sulphide of copper, 1 bismuth, 7 hematite, 1 sulphur, and 1 plastic 
cky; and according to the " Anuario Estadistico" there were, on the 
31st of December, 1901, 625 claims registered, covering an area of 
6,891 hectares. 

In 1901, 92 gold and silver mines in the State, containing 2,051 hec- 
tares, employing 6,790 hands, produced 120,000,000 kilograms of ore, 
valued at $2,711,859, and in 1902 the total production amounted to 
117,680,000 kilograms, valued at $3,162,000, the number of mines in 
operation being 67. 

Trade. — Guanajuato is the most important mercantile center of the 
Republic, both the Central and Mexican National railways deriving 
fi'om local traffic greater profits than in any other State. Its total 
tiade can be estimated at $67,000,000 per annum, divided as follows: 
Exports of minerals to Mexico City, the United States, and Europe. 



GUANAJUATO. 101 

$20,000,000; exports of agricultural and other products to home States, 
$10,000,000; exports of industrial products, $2,000,000; imports from 
Mexico City, United States, and Europe, $12,000,000; imports from 
other Mexican States, $3,000,000, the balance being made up b}^ the 
local trade. The principal exports are mineral and agricultural prod- 
ucts, live stock and cotton goods, while the imports from Mexico City 
and the United States and Europe are groceries, ready-made clothing, 
textiles, hardware, drugs, arms and ammunition, hats, canned goods, 
agricultural and mining machinery, and tools; and from the Mexican 
States, mescal tequila, fruits, pulque, coffee, etc. 

Communications. — The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the State 
in three directions: First, from east to northwest on the line from 
Mexico Cit}^ to Ciudad Juarez, or Paso del Norte (152 kilometers); 
second, from the center to the southwest on the branch line from 
Irapuato to Guadalajara (84 kilometers); and third, from the center to 
the northeast on the branch line from Silao to Guanajuato (23 kilo- 
meters). The Mexican National Railroad runs from southeast to north 
on the line from Mexico Cit}^ to Nuevo Laredo, a distance of 2Yl kilo- 
meters, and the Salamanca and Valle de Santiago Railroad has an 
extent of 18 to 20 kilometers in the municipality of Salamanca. The 
street railways in the cities of the State measure about 14 kilometers. 
The State is crossed in all directions by good wagon roads, and there 
exists an extensive network of telegraph and telephone wires, as well 
as an efficient postal service. 

Industries. — Among the flourishing industrial establishments are 350 
woolen mills, with a yearly output of 90,000 pieces of cloth; 45,000 
yards of carpet and other fabrics; 853 cotton mills producing an aver- 
age of 200,500 pieces of cotton (manta), 46,600 pieces comboyos, 
550,000 rebozos, and 100,000 kilograms of twine, the consumption of 
these factories being about 815,000 kilograms of wool and 1,000,000 
kilograms of cotton annuall3^ There are besides 72 flour mills (steam 
and hydraulic power), yielding about 15,000,000 kilograms of flour per 
annum, linseed mills, saddleries, potteries, powder works, distilleries, 
tanneries, and foundries. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into 5 departments, subdivided into 
32 partidos. The departments are: 

Allende, population 46,933 (4 partidos); its principal cities are San 
Miguel Allende and Dolores Hidalgo, situated 71 and QQ kilometers, 
respectively, from Guanajuato. 

Celaya, population 46,408 (11 partidos); its principal city, bearing 
the same name, is situated at the int-ersection of the Mexican National 
and Mexican Central railways. It has a line of street cars 3 kilo- 
meters in length extending to the raiiwa}^ station. Other towns are: 
Acambaro, on the Mexican National Railway; Aspaseo, and Salva- 
tierra. 



102 MEXICO. 

Guanajuato, population 387,718 (9 partidos) ; its principal city, 
2,083 metci-s above the sea, bears the same name, it being also the 
capital of the State and containing 3U,104 inhabitants. The cit}^ of 
Guanajuato is situated.106 kilometers by rail from Mexico Cit}^, 311 
from San Luis Potosi, 160 from Queretaro, and 212 kilometers from 
Guadalajara. It is located in a narrow valley on the river Guana- 
juato. The principal buildings are the State government palace, the 
Palace of Congress, the mint, the State college, several churches, two 
theaters, hospitals, a bull ring, the market de la Reforma, the Pan- 
theon, and the Castle of Granaditas, where the heads of Hidalgo, 
Allende, Aldama, Jimenez, and other patriots were liung on iron 
hooks during the war of independence. 

The mineral wealth of Guanajuato has always commanded the atten- 
tion of the world. From 1812 to 1896 the combined value of gold, 
silver, and copper coined by the Guanajuato mint amounted to 
$309,077,168.25 Mexican silver, the gold coinage being estimated at 
$21,178,328; silver, $287,881,476.25, and copper, $11,661. The figures 
from 1896-1901 are, silver, $13,957,716; gold, $599,911.88; and from 
1901-1902 are, silver, $11,868,924, and gold, $188,024. This city is 
the commercial center of the State, and one of the most important in 
the Republic. It has a branch road connection with the Central Rail- 
road, also 10 kilometers of street railways, electric lighting, and all 
modern improvements. Other leading towns are Cuitzeo de Abasolo, 
Irapuato (an important market on the Central Railroad), La Paz, Sala- 
manca, Silao, and Valle de Santiago, situated in a fertile valley bear- 
ing the same name. 

Leon, population 193,932 (1 partidos); its two leading towns are 
Leon de los Aldamas and San Francisco del Rincon, the former 56 kilo- 
meters from Guanajuato, and one of the principal manufacturing cen- 
ters of the Republic, and the latter situated on the Central Railroad, 

Sierra Gorda, population 93,156 (3 partidos); its principal cities are 
San Luis de la Paz, 98 kilometers from Guanajuato, San Jose de Itur- 
bide, Xichu, Santa Catarina, and Victoria. 

GUEREEEO. 

The State of Guerrero, population 179,205, its capital Chilpancingo, 
1,193 meters altitude, population 7,197, is one of the maritime States 
of the Republic. It has a promising future, but so far has been but 
little explored and has a small population, lacks communication facili- 
ties, and its territory is mountainous and rough. 

Boundaries. — The boundaries are the States of Mexico and Morelos 
on the north; Puebla on the northeast; Oaxaca on the east and south- 
east, and the Pacific Ocean on the southwest. The area is given as 
64,756 square kilometers. 

Situation. — The Pacific coast line of the State is 500 kilometers in 



GUEERERO. 103 

extent, the shores being low, sandy, well sheltered, and possessing 
excellent ports and harbors. Acapulco, the principal port of the State, 
is classed among the finest harbors of the world, b}" reason of its 
beautiful, well-sheltered bay, measuring 6,285 meters in length by 
3,141 in breadth, and having a depth of 84 meters. Other Pacific 
ports in the State are Petlacala, Sihuatanejo, and Papanoa. 

Topograpliy . — Guerrero is mountainous throughout almost its entire 
extent, being traversed by the Sierra Madre del Sur, which reaches its 
greatest altitude at 2,800 meters. The valleys between the cordilleras 
are narrow, and the highest peaks are Tlacotepec and Tiotepec, 2,800 
meters high, and Escalera, 2,521 meters in height. 

Hydrography. — The rivers of the State, on account of the broken 
surface of the territory, have very rapid currents. The principal is 
the Mexcala or Balsas, also known as the Atoyac or Poblano. Its 
headwaters are in the Tlaxco Mountains of the State of Tlaxcala, 
whence it enters Guerrero on the east, dividing the State into two sec- 
tions, the southern occupied by the Sierra Madre range and the north- 
ern by the slopes of the mountain chains from the States of Mexico 
and Morelos. The river is 687 kilometers in length, but is navigable 
for small craft only. All the waters of the State are tributary to it. 
The principal lakes are Pazahualco, Chantengo, Nexpa, and San 
Marcos. 

Climate. — Climatic conditions vary according to the altitude of the 
districts, the cold belt beginning beyond 2,000 meters, the temperate 
lying between 1,000 and 2,000 meters, and the hot lands situated below 
the 1,000 meters. On the coasts the heat is excessive, from 35° to 36° 
C. (95° to 96°. 80 F.), and the rain falls in torrents, precipitation being 
moderate in the temperate lands only. Frosts are frequent in the 
high altitudes of the Sierras. Fevers, lepros}^, and affections of the 
respiratory and digestive organs are the prevailing diseases. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State, though rich and varied, 
is not well known. It embraces over 65 species of mammals, over 80 
birds, 50 reptiles, 6 batrachians, 40 fishes, and numberless insects. The 
flora is worthy of note, comprising over 150 trees, 75 fruits, 33 textile 
plants, 17 tanning plants, 15 oleaginous, 25 dj^e, 10 forage, and an 
equal number of poisonous plants, 20 aromatic plants, about 40 gums 
and resins, 200 medicinal plants, and countless ornamental shrubs and 
flowers. 

Resources. — The development of the immense agricultural wealth 
of the State onlj^ awaits the establishment of railroad facilities, immi- 
gration, and better wagon roads, when the cultivation of cotton, 
coffee, tobacco, rubber, vanilla, etc., ma}^ be advantageously under- 
taken on a large scale. The agricultural production of the State is 
about $2,200,000 per annum, the leading articles being sesame seed, 
cereals, leguminous plants, fruits, tobacco, vanilla, coffee, cacao, and 



104 MEXICO. 

textile fibers. In 1887 the number of plantations estimated as under 
cultivation was 111, as follows: Cotton, 15; coffee, 1; sugar cane, 7^; 
cereals, 25, and 31 cattle ranches. Official figures for 1902 give the 
agricultural production of the State as follows: Corn, $1,017,960; 
sugar-cane products, 3,355,231 kilos, at |391,170; textile fibers, 
132,000; coffee, $25,000; tobacco, $25,200. The value of stock may 
be estimated at about $3,000,000, and dairy industry is under process 
of development. 

Mining. — Within the limits of the State lie one of the richest mining 
regions of the country, although as yet complete development has not 
been attained. Gold, silver, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur, granite, 
and marble are among the principal mineral products; also very fine 
opals of three varieties, topazes, diamonds, and, according to report, 
salt. The exploitation of these products has been greatly hampered 
by lack of communication facilities, less than two-thirds of the total 
number of mines being in operation. During the j^ear 1902 the min- 
ing production of the State is reported by the " Anuario Estadistico" 
at $231,000, the number of mines in operation being 310. 

Trade. — The commerce of Guerrero is of little importance, due to 
the lack of railways and to the paucity of the population, which cir- 
cumstances ma}^ be accounted for on the one hand by the topography 
of the countr}^ and b}^ the unhealthy climate on the other. Exports 
consist of minerals, live stock, cotton, fruits, and woods, sent to Mexico 
City, and of hides and skins, cotton, rice, tortoise shell, pearl conches, 
and fruits sent abroad; while the imports include all kinds of manufac- 
tured products, mainl}^ food products, hardware, dr}^ goods, machinery, 
agricultural implements, etc. There is a maritime custom-house at 
Acapulco, its trade being approximately estimated at $500,000, equally 
divided between imports and exports. The total trade of the State is 
fixed at about $5,000,000 in round numbers. 

Communications. — There are practically no railroads, as the Inter- 
oceanic Railway, which is destined to connect the port of Acapulco on 
the Pacific with Veracruz on the Gulf, and with the national capital, is 
not 3^et completed, and the same is true of the Mexico, Cuernavaca and 
Pacific, and of the Michoacan and Pacific lines, which are to traverse cer- 
tain portions of the State. There are, however, extensive telegraph 
and telephone lines, as well as an efficient mail service and some wagon 
roads, especial mention being made of a road connecting Mexico Citj^ 
and Acapulco. The port of Acapulco connects with foreign countries 
by means of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company and the "Compania 
Mexicana de Vapores del Pacifico y Golfo de California." During 
1902, the number of vessels entering the port of Acapulco was 213, 
of which 167 were steamers, while those sailing from the port were 212, 
there being 167 steamers. 



GUEREEBO. ' ' 105 

Industries. — The value of the manufacturing- industry of the State, 
estimated at about $3,000,000 annually, is confined to the manufacture 
of sugar-cane products, mescal wine, palm oil, cotton spinning, tanning, 
and the development of apicultural products. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into fourteen districts, subdivided 
into fourteen municipalities. The districts are: 

Aldama, population 64,717, with its chief town bearing- the name 
of La Union, situated 566 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Mina, population 50,926, an important mining section; its principal 
town, Coyuca de Catalan, is 293 kilometers from Chilpancing-o. 

Alarcon, population 34,164, rich in minerals and remarkable for the 
cave of Cacahuanilpa, said to be more beautiful than the Mammoth 
Cave in the United States. The chief town is Taxco de Alarcon, 147 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Hidalgo, population 31,730; its chief town, Iguala de Iturbide, is 
135 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Alvarez, population 43,498; chief town, Chilapa de Alvarez, 46 kilo- 
meters from Chilpancingo. 

Zaragoza, population 20,604; chief town, Huamuxtitlan, 222 kilo- 
meters from Chilpancingo, situated in a ver}^ fertile region. 

Morelos, population 43,540; chief town, Tlapa or Ciudad Comon- 
fort, 168 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Abasolo, population 25,471; chief town, Ometepec, 190 kilometers 
from Chilpancingo. 

Allende, population 28,282; chief town, A3mtla de los Libres, 151 
kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Tabares, population 43,136; its chief town, Acapulco de Juarez, 
population 4,932, is an important seaport, 188 kilometers from Chil- 
pancingo and 495 kilometers from Mexico City. The bay of Acapulco 
is the most sheltered of the Mexican ports, and is capable of accom- 
modating 100 vessels of deep and 200 of lighter draft. The steamers of 
the Pacific Mail and of the Mexican International Company touch at 
Acapulco, where there is a custom-house and a beacon lig'ht. The 
exports through Acapulco in 1901-2, as given by the " Boletin de Esta- 
distica Fiscal" for that period, amount to about $200,000, while the 
exports are valued at $201,000. 

Galeana, population 21,297; its principal town, Tecpan de Galeana, 
located 327 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 

Chilpancingo, or Bravos, population 33,088; its principal town, 
Chilpancingo de los Bravos, or Ciudad Bravos, population 7,497, the 
capital of the State, is a small but important city, 319 kilometers from 
Mexico City and 178 from the port of Acapulco. There are some fine 
buildings in the town, which is lighted by electricity. 

Guerrero, population 28,128; its principal town is Tuxtla de Guer- 
rero, 13 kilometers from Chilpancingo. 



106 MEXICO. 

HIDALGO. 

The State of Hidalgo has a population of 005,051. Its capital is the 
city of Pachuca, 2,417 meters altitude, population 37,18Y. 

Boundaries. — The State is bounded on the north by the States of 
San Luis Potosi and Veracruz, on the east by Puebla, on the south 
by Mexico and Tlaxcala, and on the west by Queretaro, its area 
measuring 22,215 square kilometers. 

Topogra])hy. — The northern portion of the State is mountainous as 
compared with the southern, the orographic system being a continua- 
tion of the Sierra Madre, which receives different names in the various 
districts traversed, the principal ranges being Tulancingo, Zimapan, 
Jacala, Zacuatilpam, Hue3aitla, and Pachuca. The highest peaks are 
Tapetillan, Creston, Cerro Alto, Cresta de Gallo, Organos, and Cerro 
de Navajas, the latter being 3,212 meters in height. There are several 
curious caves in the State. The southern and western portions are 
generally flat, the principal plains being the Apan, Mexquital, Tula, 
and the valleys of Tulancingo and Agua Zarca, and the Llanura Grande. 

Hydrography.— ^\\.QX^ are no large rivers, the principal streams 
being the Tula and its tributaries, the Amajague and its affluents, and 
the Metztitlan or Rio Grande and its branches. There are other rivers 
of lesser importance and several waterfalls, among them being the 
Regla cascade, whose waters are used by the Electric Power Company 
to supply motive power for several reduction works. The largest lake 
is the Metztitlan, which is 17 kilometers in length. Mineral springs 
abound. 

Climate. — The climate is generally mild rather than cold on the 
uplands and plateaus, and hot or temperate according to the varying 
altitudes of the lower districts. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora are rich and varied, resem- 
bling in general characteristics those of the other States of the 
Republic. 

Resources. — The agricultural products consist in the main of cereals, 
coffee, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, maguey, and leguminous vegeta- 
bles. Mexican ofiicial statistics for 1897 give the State 208 plantations, 
divided as follows: Maguey pulque, 129; cereals, 52; sugar cane, 8; 
tobacco, 1; and 18 cattle ranches. The production of the State for 
1902 is estimated thus: Cereals, to the value of $2,750,000; sugar- 
cane products, 5,178,129 kilograms, valued at $160,000; rum, 17,100 
hectoliters, valued at $197,300; and maguey products to a value of 
$25,000, pulque alone amounting to 776,835 hectoliters, valued at 
$1,096,586. 

Mining. — Mining is the most important industry, as almost every 
district is a mining center, the principal being Pachuca and Zimapan, 
the former containing the regions of Real del Monte, Atotonilco el 



HIDALGO. 107 

Chico, Santa Rosa, Capula, Tepenene, and Potosi, and the latter, Car- 
donal, Bonanza, Pechuga, Jacala, La Encarnacion, San Jose del Oro, 
and Verdosas. The chief metals found are gold, in small quantities; 
silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese, cinna- 
bar, and plumbago. Other mineral substances are coal, marble, 
granite, opals, garnets, etc. There are in operation 36 redaction 
works for the treatment of the finer metals and 6 devoted to the 
smelting of iron ore. Mexican official statistics for 1902 credit the 
State with a production of 138,223,000 kilos metal of all kinds, valued 
at about $5,400,000, the number of mines in operation during- the 
year being 109. 

Coimmmications. — The railroad lines traversing the State are the 
"Hidalgo y del Nordeste," connecting Pachuca with Mexico City (109 
kilometers); the Mexican Central and the Mexican International, 
covering, in all, an extent of 371 kilometers. There is a street-car 
line 8 kilometers in length, in Pachuca, besides several private rail- 
ways, constructed in connection with the working of the mines. The 
total length of telegraph wires is estimated at 918 kilometers, with 
32 stations. There are also numerous telephone lines and an efficient 
mail service. 

The principal industries are the reduction of ores, the manufacture 
of cotton and woolen goods, and of pulque, bricks and tiles, matches, etc. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into 
municipalities. The districts and their chief towns are the following: 

Atotonilco el Grande, population 26,619; chief town of the same 
name, 32 kilometers from Pachuca, the capital of the State. 

Actopam, population 47,797; chief town Actopam, 30 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Apan, population 19,002; chief town Apan, 72 kilometers from 
Pachuca. 

Huichapam, population 31,566; chief town of the same name, 140 
kilometers from Pachuca. 

Huejutla, population 76,811; chief town Huejutla, 192 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Ixmiquilpam, population 46,978, chief town of the same name, 88 
kilometers from Pachuca. 

Jacala de Ledesma, population 30,299, chief town of the same name, 
180 kilometers from Pachuca. 

Metztitlan, population 26,416, chief town Metztitlan, 76 kilometers 
from Pachuca. 

Molango, population 37,019, chief town of the same name, 116 kilo- 
meters from Pachuca. 

Pachuca, population 99,608; its chief town, Pachuca, population 
37,487, is also capital of the State. It is the principal city of Hidalgo, 
on account of its commerce, population, and mining industry. It is 



108 MEXICO. 

connected wiih Mexico City by the Hidalgo, Mexican, and Central 
railvva3^s. The city contains several line ])uildings, among- others the 
Palace of Justice, the Scientific and Literary Institute, a Meteorolog- 
ical Observ^atory, the School of Mining, and a public library. In the 
district of Pachuca are found the principal mining sections of the 
State. 

The other districts are Tula, population 39,572; Tulacingo, popula- 
tion 48,095; Tenango de Doria, population 25,205; Zacuatilpam, popu- 
lation 21,259; Zimapan, population 28,805, their chief towns bearing 
the names of the districts. 

JALISCO. 

The State of Jalisco, population, 1,153,891; capital city, Guadala- 
jara, 1,566 meters above the sea, population 101,208 inhabitants, is 
one of the richest mining and agricultural sections of the Republic. 
The State covers an area of 86,752 square kilometers and has a coast 
line of 500 kilometers. 

Boundaries. — One State, which is irregular in shape, is bounded on 
the north, east, and south by the States of Durango, Zacatecas, Aguas 
Calientes, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Michoacan, Colima, 
and the Territory of Tepic, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 

Climate. — Jalisco possesses a great variety of climates. A large 
portion of the State is traversed by the Sierra Madre range, which 
graduall}^ slopes to the Pacific, giving rise to nearly every- climatic 
condition known to the temperate and torrid zones. The high table- 
lands of the eastern portion are cold. In this region cereals, as well as 
many other products of the temperate zone, can be produced. The 
valleys between the mountains are well watered and exceedingly fertile. 
In these favored places flourish, according to the elevation, sugar cane, 
cotton, vanilla, tobacco, oranges, coffee, etc. Sugar cane grows very 
rapidly in this State, and once planted it does not have to be renewed 
for eight or ten years, which is a great advantage over Morelos and 
other States, where cane onl}^ grows by means of artificial irrigation 
and must be replanted every two years. 

Topography. — The eastern portion of the State is traversed by the 
Sierra Madre range, in which occur a number of imposing mountain 
peaks. The most noted of these are the Tapalpa, Tigre, Nevado, and 
Colima. The latter is an active volcano, the elevation of which is 4,378 
meters above the level of the sea. The northern and northeastern 
portions of the State are very mountainous and form a veritable net- 
work of spurs and isolated peaks from the Sierra Madre range. 
Between these are found picturesque and fertile valleys of varying 
elevations and extent. The State in its entirety possesses a vast 
territory, watered by numerous lakes and rivers* 

Hydrograjyhy. — The largest and most important stream is the San- 
tiago, or Lerma, River. This river rises in Lake Chapala in the 



JALISCO. 109 

extreme southeastern portion of the State, and flows in a northwesterly 
direction through Jalisco and the Territory of Tepic, emptying into 
the Pacific Ocean at a point north of the port of San Bias. It is about 
750 kilometers long, and drains a territory containing, it is estimated, 
2,5,000 square kilometers. In its course toward the sea this stream 
forms beautiful cascades near the village of Juanacatlan in the vicinity 
of the city of Guadalajara. These are of such a grand and imposing 
character that they have been appropriately called the Niagara of 
Mexico. Their height is about 20 meters. The river at this point is 
160 meters wide. The force generated by these celebrated falls is 
enormous, and a large electric plant has been erected there. This 
plant supplies electric power to the city of Guadalajara, the capital of 
the State, 7 kilometers distant. This water power is also utilized by 
a large number of factories in Guadalajara and vicinity in the opera- 
tion of their plants, and is fast making that city one of the great 
manufacturing centers of the Republic, 

Other important rivers of the State are the Acaponeta and San 
Pedro, both of which flow into Lake Mexcaltitlan, The Armenia and 
Ameca rivers are also streams of considerable size and importance. 
One of the most beautiful lakes of the State, and the largest in the 
liepublic, is Lake Chapala, the surface area of which is 234 square 
kilometers. The waters of this lake contain a great abundance of 
edible fish. German carp abound, the Mexican Government having 
stocked the lake some years ago with this variety of fish. Lake 
Chapala is also quite a summer resort. Comfortable hotels have been 
built upon its shores, and hundreds of people from Guadalajara and 
surrounding country spend the summers there. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of this State is as rich and 
varied as that of any other Mexican territor}". 

Resources. — The peculiar topographical conditions of the State, with 
its variety of climates, make of this region one of the richest agri- 
cultural sections of the country. 

Agriculture. — Sugar is one of the leading products, and the cultiva- 
tion of cotton could be greatly increased, the native product at pres- 
ent not being sufiicient to supply the needs of the cotton industry, 
which has developed to such an extent in Mexico that nearl}^ 70 per 
cent of the raw material consumed has to be brought from the United 
States. Cotton planters would, therefore, be sure to find in the Repub- 
lic an excellent home market for their product. The lowlands on the 
coast are hot, and on them thrive a great variety of tropical and sub- 
tropical products, while the climate, invigorated by the sea breeze, is 
not as enervating as that of the eastern coast of Mexico, Cedar, pine, 
oak, and other valuable trees are found in the mountains, and cabinet 
woods also abound. If the projected railroad from Aguas Calientes 
to Chamela, a small port on the Pacific, is built the forest lands will 



110 MEXICO. 

greatly enhance in value. At present, owing- to the lack of easy means 
of transportation, the exploitation is difficult and timbered lands in 
some parts of the State can now be bought for $2 Mexican silver per 
hectare. 

The principal agricultural production of the country according tc 
the "AnuarJo Estadistico" for 1902, was, during that year, cereals 
110,200,000 in round numbers, corn being the largest item, bein^ 
represented by $9,885,000; sugar-cane products, 5,498,000 kilos 
valued at $165,180; alcohol to the value of $500,000; pulque, $1,096, 
586; other maguey products, $70,000; coffee, $80,000, and tobacco 
162,000. 

Mining. — Jalisco contains a great variety of minerals. Within its 
boundaries are to be found at the present time numerous silver, gold 
copper, iron, lead, and cinnabar mines. The silver mines of San Pedn 
Analco and of Atemajac are the most important. The concessionaires 
have recently been negotiating the sale of this latter mine for $800,00( 
gold. A United States company is developing the gold mines nea: 
Tequila, which jdeld from one to four ounces per ton. The Calabra an( 
Santo Domingo mines, near Ezatlan, have produced large quantities o: 
silver ore containing a certain percentage of gold. These mines arc 
still under development. The total mineral production of the Stat( 
in 1897 was $2,252,999 Mexican silver. A large quantity of ore ii 
shipped annuall}'^ to the smelters at Aguas Calientes, San Luis Potosi 
Monterey, and Ciudad Juarez, to be reduced there. There are 
number of small smelters in the State, and considerable quantities o: 
ore are treated in these, and by the patio process. Rich coppei 
deposits have been discovered in various parts of the State, and withir 
the last few years many claims have been denounced and new mines 
opened. The field is practicall}^ a virgin one, and offers rich rewards 
to the miner and capitalist. The number of mining claims regis 
tered up to December 31, 1902, was 719, covering an area of 1,88( 
hectares, while the total mineral production of the State is estimatec 
at about 80,000,000 kilos, valued at over $1,000,000; the number oi 
mines in operation being 87, according to the "Anuario Estadistico, 
for 1902. The Federal assay office in Guadalajara treated during th€ 
same period gold to the value of $111,051 and silver $4,586,134 foi 
coinage, and about $80,000 gold and $1,000,000 silver for export. 

Trade. — In the district of Tequila, west of Guadalajara, one of the 
principal products cultivated is the mague}^, a plant belonging to the 
agave family and from the sap of which a liquor resembling gin \i_ 
obtained by distillation. This beverage, called "tequila," has an 
enormous consumption in the northwestern part of Mexico. Lands 
planted in this variety of maguey bring large prices in Mexico. One 
farm containing less than 1,700 hectares was sold for 600,000 pesoi 
($300,000). The government of Jalisco is endeavoring to introduce 



JALISCO. 



Ill 



the culture of the Yucatan henequen, the plant of which resembles in 
appearance the maguey. Agricultural enterprises on a large scale could 
be successfully carried on in the part of the State comprised in the so- 
called hot countr}^, where virgin lands cleared of underbrush can be 
obtained at very low prices. During the last few years large ship- 
ments of oranges from the La Barca district have been made to the 
United States. These oranges are of a rich color, delicately flavored, 
and are sweet and luscious. They come into the market a few weeks 
before the early California oranges, and are yearly becoming more 
highly prized in the markets of the United States. 

Coininu7iications. — The main line of the Mexican Central Railway 
passes through the northeastern portion of the State. A branch line 
of this road runs from Lagos to La Barca, Guadalajara, and Ameca. 
This branch will ultimately be extended to the Pacific coast, opening 
up a region rich in valuable forests aiid agricultural and mineral 
wealth. 

Industries. — The sugar industry is of great importance, the average 
annual production reaching 12,000 tons of refined sugar and 10,000 
tons of raw sugar, worth, respectively, about $2,500,000 and $1,200,000. 
The district of Cocula alone, situated in the temperate zone, produces 
10,000 tons of sugar, or three times more than the entire State of 
Veracruz. A "hacienda" situated in this district not far from Santa 
Ana has realized a profit of $800,000 in one year. Morelos is the only 
State whose production exceeds that of Jalisco. 

Cattle raising is also carried on in Jalisco to advantage and profit. 
This industrj^ is as yet in its infancy, but is rapidly increasing in value 
and importance. The number of large ranches or farms in this State 
is also considerable, many of which constantly employ 500 or 600 
laborers and 200 to 300 horses and mules daily in the operation of the 
same. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into twelve cantons, the names and 
populations of which are as follows: 



Guadalajara 205, 664 

Lagos 104, 135 



La Barca . 

Sayula 

Ameca^.., 
AutUn .. 
Jocotepec 



165, 948 
87, 065 
59, 345 
70, 227 
52, 399 



Colotldn 68,730 

Ciudad Guzman 134, 612 

Mascota 52, 712 

Teocaltiche 94, 439 

Ahualulco 58, 615 



Total 1,153,891 



Guadalajara, the capital of the State, with 101,208 inhabitants, is 
one of the finest cities in the country, and is known as the ■' Pearl of the 
West." It contains a large number of government buildings, schools, 
and educational institutions, a large and handsome cathedral, and the 
largest theater in the Republic, a Federal assay oflSice, three banks, and 
a chamber of commerce. Many magnificent public parks adorn and 



112 



MEXICO. 



beautify the town. The cotton industry is one of the principal indus- 
tries of the city. La Compauia Industrial Manufacturera (capital 
4,000,000 pesos), has established a spinning' mill and TOO looms at 
Juanacatlan, 26i kilometers from Guadalajara. The machinery is run 
by the celebrated waterfalls of Juanacatlan. Manta or unbleached 
cotton is the principal product. A few kilometers from Guadalajara, 
but in another direction, the Compania Industrial of Guadalajara, with 
a capital of 2,000,000 pesos, owns the cotton factories of Atemajac and 
Experiencia. There are 164 looms at Atemajac and 180 at Experiencia, 
all imported from England. There are also two other cotton factories 
in the State of Jalisco, those of Escoba and Rio Blanco, but thej^ are 
of much less importance. There are no woolen mills, with the excep- 
tion of a few hand looms. The leather industry is greatly developed. 
There are in Guadalajara saddleries, shoe factories, and two tanneries; 
also two breweries, a paper mill, and canning factories. The city is 
in a verj^ prosperous condition, and many opportunities exist for the 
establishment of new industries. 

In addition to Guadalajara, the State of Jalisco contains a number 
of other important cities, as shown by the following table: 



Name. 



La Barca 

Zapotlanejo 

Ciudad GuzmAii 

Lagos 

Sayula 



Popula- 
tion. 



7,100 
20, 270 
17, 596 
16, 000 

7,883 



Name. 



Zacoales . . . 

Autldn 

Teocaltiche 

Ameca 

Cocula 



Popula- 
tion. 



6,616 
7,715 
8,881 
7, 962 
6,616 



The number of public schools in the State exceeded, not including 
church and private schools, 600 in 1902. These schools had 36,896 
pupils enrolled, with an average attendance of 42,385. The number of 
scholars attending church and private schools during the same period | 
was 28,108. The State of Jalisco spends more than 1300,000 annually, 
in the maintenance of its schools. Guadalajara has a number of schools 
devoted to higher education, including the College of Medicine and 
Pharmacy, the Law School, the Lyceum, and the Normal School. 

MEXICO. 

The State of Mexico, population 934,463; capital, the city of Toluca, 
2,671 meters above the sea, population 25,904, is among the mosi 
important agricultural and industrial sections of the Bepublic. It! 
territor}^ is not very large, but it is fairly well populated and embracel 
within its limits such valleys as the Tokica Vallej^ and the valley o| 
Mexico, which are classed among the most beautiful and fertile in th« 
world. 

Bou7idaries. — Its boundaries are the State of Hidalgo on the north] 
Tlaxcala and Puebla on the east, Morelos on the south and southeast] 



MEXICO. 113 

Guerrero on the south and southwest, and Michoacan on the west. 
The Federal District lies to the east of the State. 

Topography.— T\\Q State occupies one of the most beautiful regions 
on earth. The northern portion is a plain, intersected by small foot- 
hills and covered with salt lakes and marshy lands; this is the land of 
the cactus and agave. The eastern part is occupied by the Popo- 
catepetl range, fertile lands, snow-covered peaks, smoking volcanoes, 
and the celebrated valley of Texcoco. The center is the region of 
forests and mountains, the valley of Toluca occupying the highest 
plateau. The Sierra Nevada mountain range, with its snow-covered 
peak of Popocatepetl, the highest in the country, rising 5,400 meters 
above sea level, traverses the eastern section; to the north is Iztacc- 
huatl, 4,786 meters in height; and to the south runs the Ajusco range, 
which marks the limit of the valley of Mexico; its highest peak is 
Ajusco, 4,153 meters high. The Sierra de Guadalupe lies north of 
the Federal District, and to the northwest of the Ajusco range is the 
snow-capped volcano of Toluca or Xinantecatl, 4,476 meters above 
the level of the sea, in whose crater are two lakes of potable water. 
The valley of Toluca is a beautiful spot, more than 2,000 meters above 
sea level, being situated on the highest plateau of the Republic and 
embracing within its limits the Federal District and the City of Mexico, 
capital of the Republic. 

Hydrography. — The State is divided into two hydrographic basins — 
the valley of Mexico and the basin of the Lerma River, the latter 
extending to the States of Queretaro, Michoacan, and Guanajuato. 
The Lerma is by far the most important stream of the country, 
traversing an extent of 452 kilometers from its source to its mouth in 
the Chapala Lake. Next in importance is the Cuautitlan or Desagiie 
River; following, according to rank, the Tula, the Tajo de Nochistango. 
This valley also contains five important lakes, three of which lie 
wholly within its boundaries, viz, Zumpango, San Cristobal, and 
Xaltocan, while the Texcoco and Chalco extend into other States. 
The Lerma lagoon lies wholly within the State. 

Climate. — Climatological conditions vary according to altitudes. 
In the valley of Toluca, 3,176 meters above sea level, it is exceedingly 
cold, while the vallej^ of Mexico enjoys a temperate and healthy 
climate, although it is somewhat variable. The rainfall is uncertain — 
scarce at times and then again falling abundantly. Frost is not 
frequent. 

Fauna andjiora. — Both fauna and flora are extremel}^ rich, embra- 
cing as many species as the most favored States. 

Resources. — The principal agricultural products are cereals, legumi- 
nous plants, and spices. Besides these there are rice, coffee, sugar 
cane, linseed, tobacco, and the maguey plant. The total production 
509a— 04 8 



114 MEXICO. 

varies in value from ten to twelve millions of pesos per annmn. Offi- 
cial statistics for 1902 estimate at 17,697,763 kilos the production of 
cereals in the State, with a value of $8,716,364; sugar-cane products 
(direct) 966,000 kilos, at $118,000; sugar-cane rum, $115,000; pulque, 
207,500 hectoliters, at $440,000, and tlachique, another maguey prod- 
uct, 610,326 hectoliters, valued at $1,062,765. Stock raising is also 
one of the principal sources of wealth, with an estimated value of 
$17,000,000, with the following relative rank: Sheep, cattle, hogs, 
goats, horses, asses, and mules. 

Mining. — Many rich mining districts are within the State, though 
their wealth is not yet fully exploited. Gold, silver, and lead are the 
principal metals. On December 31, 1902, there were registered 375 
claims, covering 4,191 hectares, the total production of the mines in 
operation in the State, 24 in number, being estimated at 186,667,257 
kilos, valued at $5,644,953. 

Trade. — Annual trade of the State may be safelj^ estimated at about 
seven to eight millions of pesos, the principal commercial centers 
being Toluca, Tenancingo, Cuautitlan, Chalco, and Amecameca, most 
of the products going to Mexico City. 

Communications.- — The principal railway lines traversing the State 
are the Mexican National, the International, and the Interoceanic. 
The line from Mexico to Salto has an extent of 44 kilometers, the 
Mexico and Veracruz 60 kilometers, and the Central QQ kilometers. 
The Interoceanic has two tracks, one from Mexico to Veracruz, and 
one from Morelos to Acapulco, the first 69 kilometers in length and 
the latter 86 kilometers. The several street railwaj^s measure 39 kilo- 
meters in length. Telegraph, telephone, and mail communications 
are efficient, there being over 400,000 meters of telegraph wires, 
900,000 of telephone, and 23 post-offices. The State is crossed in all 
directions by wagon roads. 

Industries. — The leading industries are the manufacture of cotton 
and woolen goods, bricks, cheese and butter, wines, glassware, wheat, 
flour, sugar, alcohol, pottery, and pulque. 

Divisions. — Politically the divisions are into 15 districts, subdivided 
into municipalities. The districts are: 

Jilotepec de Abasolo, population 72,137; its chief town, Jilotepec, 
39 kilometers from Toluca, the capital of the State. 

Cuautitlan, population 33,048, with a chief town bearing the same 
name, 109 kilometers from Toluca. 

Zumpango de Victoria, population 28,363; its chief town, Zumpango 
de la Laguna, is 122 kilometers from Toluca. 

Otumba de Morelos, population 36,218, the chief town of which, 
Otumba de Gomez Farias, is 114 kilometers from Toluca. 

Texcoco de Mora, population 58,921, the chief town of which, Tex- 
coco, near a lake of the same name, is a line town containing several j 



MICHOACAN. 115 

manufacturing establishments and the repair shops of the Interoceanic 
Railroad. 

Chalco de Diaz Covarrubia, population 69,478; its chief town, Chalco, 
is quite a commercial center, a line of tramways running between it 
and Tlalmanaco, 21 kilometers in length. 

Ixtlahuaca de Rayon, population 96,947; its chief town bears the 
same name, and is situated 78 kilometers from Toluca. 

Valle de Bravo, population -J 9,866, the chief town of which bears 
the same name and is situated 55 kilometers from Toluca. 

Toluca de Lerdo, population 128,735; its chief town, Toluca, popu- 
lation 25,904, is also the State capital, and is a very beautiful city, 
containing many fine public buildings, breweries, ice factories, a 
chamber of commerce, a bank, cotton mills, oil and flour mills. It is 
the principal commercial town in the State, and is situated 73 kilo- 
meters from Mexico Cit}^ (by rail two hours and fifty minutes), 497 
kilometers from Veracruz, and is connected by rail with the principal 
cities of the Republic and of the United States. 

Tenango de Arista, population 71,966; its chief town, of the same 
name, 25 kilometers from the capital of the State, has cotton, oil, and 
flour mills. 

Lerma, population 46,703; its chief town, Lerma, is 13 kilometers 
distant from Toluca. 

Tlalnepantla de Comonf ort, population 61,486; its chief town, Tlalne- 
pantla, is 12 kilometers from Mexico City, with which it is connected 
by rail, and 77 kilometers from Toluca. 

Tenancingo de Degollado, population 66,233; its chief town, Ten- 
ancingo, is an important commercial town 46 kilometers from Toluca. 

Temascal tepee, population 48,702; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 25 kilometers from the capital of the State. 

Sultepec de Alquisiras, population 65,660; its chief town, Sultepec, 
is 67 kilometers from Toluca. 

MIOHOACAN. 

The State of Michoacan de Ocampo, population 930,033; its capital, 
Morelia, 1,950 meters altitude, population 37,278, is one of the richest 
and most beautiful regions of the Republic. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are Guanajuato on the north, Mexico 
and Queretaro on the northeast, Guerrero and Colima on the south- 
east, Jalisco on the west, and the Pacific Ocean on the south. The 
State measures 55,693 square kilometers. 

Topography. — The general character of the State is mountainous, 
and it is Immensely rich in vegetation. The coast line, which is gen- 
erally low, measures 163 kilometers in extent. The Sierra Madre 
Mountains traverse the State, sloping down, in the southern part, to 
the basin of the Balsas River, and continuing their course on the farther 



116 MEXICO. 

bank of the river as the Sierra Coalcoman. Other I'anges are Ozuma- 
tlan, Tajimaroa, Zitacuaro, Angang'isco, and Tlalpujahua.' The highest 
peaics are Tamtitado, 386 meters; Patamban, 3,750; Chinceo, 3,324; 
Tarimangacho, 3,104; Zirate, 3,34§; San Andres, 3,282; the volcano 
of JoruUo, 1,299, and several others of lesser importance. 

Hydrography. — The principal rivers are the Lerma, which irrigates 
the upper region of the State, running east and west, and, after receiv- 
ing the waters of several affluents, finally empties into Lake Chapala; 
the Duero, flowing from southwest to northwest, and the Balsas, called 
also Zacatula and Atojac, which flows from east to west, and has sev- 
eral tributaries. The Lake of Chapala, 1,580 square kilometers in 
extent, is on the Jalisco boundar^^, one-sixth of it belonging to the 
State of Michoacan. In the same region are the lagoons of Tacas- 
cuaro and Magdalena. The Lake of Patzcuaro, 36,090 meters long 
and 31,508 in breadth, contains five small islands, three of which are 
inhabited. Other bodies of water lying within the State limits are 
Lake Cuitzeo, the lagoon of Zirahuen, and of Zipimeo. 

Climate. — All varieties of climate are found in the State, the cold 
in the high altitudes being most intense, while the northern portion 
is temperate and healthy, the heat increasing toward the south, where 
fevers are prevalent. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State is rich and varied, the 
different species equaling in number those of other portions of the 
Republic. The same is true in regard to the flora. 

Mesources. — The principal agricultural products are cereals, canary 
seed, sesame and linseed, coffee, vanilla, rubber, tobacco, sugar cane, 
fruits of all kinds, and cabinet woods. Production, according to 
official data, was as follows in 1902: Cereals to the value of about 
$8,000,000, the principal items being corn, $4,865,000, and wheat, 
$2,500,000; sugar-cane products to the amount of 21,000,000 kilos, 
valued at $3,100,000; alcohol, $758,000; maguey products, $285,000; 
coffee, $93,000, and tobacco, $64,000. The annual valuation of agri- 
cultural products varies from 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 pesos. The 
stock value of the State is calculated at about $10,000,000, in the fol- 
lowing order: Beef cattle, sheep, horses, hogs, goats, mules, and asses. 

Mining. — Michoacan is one of the richest mining sections of Mexico, 
gold, silver, copper, iron, cinnabar, lead, sulphur, copperas, marble, 
granite, and coal being among the minerals found in abundance. The 
number of registered claims on December 31, 1902, amounted to 417, 
covering an area of 10,064 hectares, while the total mineral produc- 
tion of the State is estimated at 34,000,000 kilos, valued at $1,200,0' tO, 
there being 56 mines in operation. 

Trade. — Commerce is one of the leading industries, the principal 
articles of trade being cereals, exported to the neighboring States of 
Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, Queretaro, and to Mexico City; coffee 



MEXICO. 



117 



to Germany and the United States and Mexico City; fruits to the 
United States and to Queretaro and Guanajuato. Foreign trade is 
carried on through the ports of Veracruz and Manzanillo and the 
frontier customs ports of Paso del Norte and Nuevo Laredo. The 
total trade of the State may be estimated at about $30,000,000. The 
gold and silver mined is sent to the mint at Mexico for coinage. 

Com7nunicat{ons.— The line of the Mexican National Railroad, from 
Patzcuaro to the City of Mexico, traverses the State for an extent of 
439 kilometers. It is also crossed by the Mexican Central, and con- 
cessions have been granted for two other roads. Three street-car lines 
are in operation, while there are good telegraph, telephone, and mail 
facilities, and some very good wagon roads. A steel steamboat navi- 
gates Patzcuaro Lake. 

Industries. — The manufacturing industries are confined mainly to 
the production of cotton and silk shawls, cotton and woolen goods, palm 
hats, lace and embroideries, sugar-cane products, pulque mescal, cheese, 
wax matches, and beer. Sericulture and the culture of olive trees and 
grapevines are being introduced. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into 15 districts, subdivided into 75 
municipalities, the districts being as follows: 

Piedad, population 64,936; its chief town, Piedad Cabados, is an 
important one, situated near the station of the Central Railway, 181 
kilometers from Morelia, the capital of the State. 

Puruandiro, population 92,871; its chief town, Puruandiro de Cal- 
deron, the third city in the State from an industrial and commercial 
standpoint, is 86 kilometers from Morelia. 

Morelia, population 136,760; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is also the capital of the State, with 37,278 inhabitants. It has a num- 
ber of fine public buildings, an aqueduct, several factories, a public 
library, and a museum. It is situated on a picturesque hill, about 377 
kilometers from Mexico City, and has tramway lines connecting it with 
the station of the Central Railway. 

Zinapecuaro, population 56,011; its chief town, Zinapecuaro de 
Figueroa, is 54 kilometers from Morelia and 7 from Huingo Station, on 
the Mexican National Railroad. 

Maravatio, population 53,583; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 154 kilometers from Morelia. 

Zitacuaro, population 65,624; its chief town, Zitacuaro de la Inde- 
pendencia, is 155 kilometers from Morelia on the line of the Michoacan 
road. 

Huetamo, population 48,443; its chief town, Huetamo de Nunez, is 
252 kilometers from Morelia. 

Tacambaro, population 40,697; its chief town, Tacambaro de Coda- 
Uos, is 93 kilometers from Morelia. 



118 MEXICO. 

Ario de Resales, population 42,831; its chief town, bearing- the same 
name, is 88 kilometers from Morelia. 

Apatzing-an, population 26,461; its chief town, Apatzingan de la 
Constitucion, is 241 kilometers from Morelia. 

Coalcoman, population 17,065; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 423 kilometers from Morelia. 

Uruapan, population 80,250; its chief town, Uruapan del Progreso, 
is 125 kilometers from Morelia. The coflfee from this district is valued 
very highly both in the Republic and abroad. The production is, how-j 
ever, very small. 

Jiquilapan, population 59,938; its chief town, bearing the same| 
name, is 245 kilometers from Morelia. 

Zamora, population 92,150; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 128 kilometers from Morelia. 

Patzcuaro, population 52,403; its chief town, of the same name, lies 
near the beautiful lake of Patzcuaro, 62 kilometers from Morelia. 

MORELOS. 

The State of Morelos, population 160,115, capital Cuernavaca, 1,542 
meters altitudes, with a population of 9,584, is a small but rich and 
progressive State. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the Federal District to the north; 
the State of Mexico on the west, northwest, and northeast; Puebla on 
the east and southeast, and Guerrero on the south and southeast. Its 
area is 7,082 square kilometers. 

Toj)ography. — The topograpical conditions are varied, embracing 
high mountain ranges, snow-capped volcanoes, beautiful valleys, and 
deep ravines. The northern part is the mountainous section. There 
rises the lofty Sierra de Ajusco, while the Huitzilac, Tepoctlan, and 
Santo Domingo ranges extend from west to east until they meet the 
Tlayacapon mountains. The highest peaks in these ranges are Yepac, 
Oloiuica, and Ocotecatl. In the northeast are the Popocatepetl and 
the Ixtacihuatl ranges, while other mountain chains cross the State in 
all directions. 

Hydrography. — ^The State may be said to belong to the basin of the 
Amacusac River, which traverses it from west to east. This river is 
formed by the junction of the San Jeronimo and Chontalcuallan and 
receives a large number of tributarj?^ streams, among them the Chalma, 
Alpuj^eca, Tepalcapa, Yautepec, Jojutla, Tlaquiltenango, and Cuautla 
rivers. The principal lake is Lake Tequesquiten, which occupies the 
site of the old town bearing the same name, and which, by reason of a 
subsidence of the ground, due to frequent inundations, was engulfed 
about half a century ago b}^ the waters used in irrigating the land. 
The church spire may yet be seen in the middle of the lake. Others 
are the Miacatlan and Hueyapan lakes. Mineral hot springs abound. 



I MOEELOS. 119 

Climate. — The climate is hot in the southern and central regions, 
cold in the northern or mountainous portions, and temperate on the 
mountain slopes. Rainfall is moderate throughout the territory with 
the exception of the slopes of the northern mountains, where it is 
very abundant. Frosts are of infrequent occurrence. The prevailing- 
diseases are malarial and typhus fevers and affections of the respira- 
tory and digestive organs. 

Fauna and- flora. — Both fauna and flora are rich and varied, 
embracing the same species indigenous to other States of the Republic. 

Resources. — From an agricultural standpoint, Morelos is one of the 
richest States in Mexico. The principal products are sugar cane, rice, 
corn, coffee, wheat, and garden vegetables. The first cane plantation 
and sugar mill in Mexico was established by Cortes in Tlaltenango, 
and since that time its culture has advanced steadily and continuously, 
it being now the leading article of production of the State of Morelos. 
Rice yields at the rate of 200 kilograms for 1 kilogram of seed; corn, 
100 to 200 hectoliters for 1 hectoliter sown, and other products render 
adequate returns for their culture. The State's agricultural produc- 
tion, according to official figures for 1902, was as follows: Cereals, 
11,600,000; sugar-cane products, except rum, 61,791,000 kilos, valued 
at $9,035,500; rum, 49,000 hectoliters, at $1,170,250; maguey products, 
few $13,000. The extent of coffee culture is indicated by the fact that a 
years ago 1,000,000 trees were planted. Stock raising does not receive 
mach attention, the total value of all kinds, including beef cattle, sheep, 
and goats, being $1,250,000. 

Mining. — Mining occupies an inferior position among the industries 
of the State, although within its territory are found silver, galena, 
marble, alabaster, cinnabar, iron, gold, lead, petroleum, and coal. 

Trade. — Morelos is an important mercantile center, not only on 
account of its proximit}^ to the Federal District, but also by reason of 
its immense sugar-cane interests. The Interoceanic Railroad does not 
suffice for the traffic in these products, the supplementary^ use of mule 
paths being also found requisite for their conveyance to Mexico City. 
About $3,000,000 is the calculated annual export value of cane prod- 
ucts, such as sugar, rum, and molasses. Fruit exports figure at about 
$1,000,000, and other products, including corn, coffee, mescal, etc., 
about $100,000. Imports may be estimated at about $2,000,000, and 
include alimentary products, furniture, clothing, books, implements, 
arms and ammunition, and hardware. 

Communications. — The Interoceanic Railway traverses the State 
from northeast to southwest, having seveii stations in its extent of 76 
kilometers. A concession has recently been granted for a line between 
Toluca and Cuernavaca, and there is a prospect for the Valley Railway 
being extended to the latter city. Good wagon roads exist and tele- 
graph, telephone, and mail service is efficient. 



120 MEXICO. 

IndiLstries. — The manufacturing- industries, in addition to the devel- 
opment of cane products, include the preparation of mescal, and the 
manufacture of beer, flour, chocolate, oils, cigars, bricks, tiles, hair 
bridles and halters, ixtle bags, and cotton goods. Pottery works and 
tanneries also make good returns. 

Bimsions. — The State of Morelos is divided into 6 districts, subdi- 
vided into 26 municipalities, as follows: 

Cuernavaca, population 40,813; its chief town, bearing the same 
name, is also the capital of the State, on the river Tepeyte, 70 kilo- 
meters from the City of Mexico. Cuernavaca is a justly celebrated 
health resort, much visited by natives and tourists on account of its 
salubrious climate. It is an important commercial center, possessing 
very tine public buildings, among others the Palace of Cortes, wdiere 
the State Legislature meets, a Meteorological Observatory, and ih^ 
public library. The population of the capital numbers 9,584 inhab- 
itants. 

Yautepec, population 18,336; its chief town, Yautepec de Zaragoza, 
is 25 kilometers from Cuernavaca and 161 kilometers from the City 
of Mexico, with which it is connected hy the Interoceanic Railwa}''. 

Morelos, population 30,055; its chief town, Cuautla Morelos, is 44 
kilometers from Cuernavaca, and is connected with the capital of the 
Republic by rail. 

Jonacatepec, population 26,595; its chief town, Jonacatepec de 
Leandro Valle, is 74 kilometers from Cuernavaca. 

Juarez, population 20,233; its chief town, Jojutla de Juarez, is 50 
kilometers from Cuernavaca, and is connected with the City of Mexico 
by rail. 

Tetecala, population 24,083; its chief town, Tetecala de la Reforma, 
is 48 kilometers from Cuernavaca. 

NUEVO LEON. 

The State of Nuevo Leon, population 327,937; capital city, Monterey, 
495 meters altitude, population 62,266, occupying a very fertile and 
well-watered region, abounding in minerals. 

Boundaries.— Tho, boundaries are Coahuilaon the north, northwest, 
and west; San Luis Potosi on the south and southwest, and Tamaulipas 
on the northeast, east, and southeast. Nuevo Leon, whose area is 
61,343 square kilometers, occupies the eastern slope of the central 
plateau, extending in a northeasterly direction, 

TopogTaphy. — The Sierra Madre Mountains traverse the State at a 
mean elevation of 1,676 meters above sea level for a distance of 252 
kilometers. Among its numerous peaks, the Potosi is the principal, 
its summit being covered with snow during pai't of the summer. 
These mountains come to an abrupt end in the northern part of the 



NUEVO LEON. 121 

State; here another chain starts whose highest peaks are known as the 
Silla, Mitra, Topo, and Salinas. At the latter point the chain is bifur- 
cated, forming- two new ranges, viz, the Sierra de Gomas on the. north 
and the Sierra de Picachos on the south. 

Ilydrography. — Twelve rivers and 100 smaller streams irrigate the 
State, besides numberless brooks. None of these water courses, how- 
ever, are navigable. The principal river is the Salado, its waters 
abounding in fishes and fine pearl oysters. It receives the waters of 
many tributaries and flows from west to east, emptying in the Rio 
Bravo. The Santa Catarina, the Ramos, the Pilon, the Rio Grande de 
San Juan, the Potosi, the Hualahuises, and Pablillo rivers follow in 
the order mentioned. There are also two lagoons and several hot 
springs, but no lakes. 

Climate. — The climate varies according to the altitude, but it is 
generally temperate and healthy, the extreme of heat being found in 
the north and east where the land is low, while on the highlands of 
the south a moderate temperature prevails, varying in the Sierra 
Madre Mountains according to the altitude. The rainfall is variable, 
and winds come in general from the east and northeast. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State possess the same 
qualities and extent as other Mexican States. 

Resources. — Agriculture has been steadily progressing. The Mexi- 
can Statistical Annual for 1902 credits the State with the following- 
production in round figures: Cereals, $1,108,000; sugar-cane products, 
rum excepted, 8,559,000 kilos, valued at $910,000; rum, |36,250; 
maguey products, $11,000; ixtle, $34,000. The value of stock in the 
State is estimated at $6,000,000, the different varieties classed as fol- 
lows: Goats, sheep, beef cattle, horses, hogs, asses, and mules. 

Mining. — The mineral wealth of the land has been very slightly 
developed, although there exist mines of iron, copper, silver, lead, 
coal, sulphur, marble, etc. On the 31st of December, 1902, the num- 
ber of registered claims was 509, covering an area of 9,704 hectares, the 
total output of the State being estimated at 151,412,839 kilos, with a 
value of $2,427,000, the number of mines in operation being 60. 

Trade. — Among the exports may be mentioned shipments of cattle 
to Texas (United States) and to some Mexican States, also agricultural 
products and a small quantity of cotton and woolen goods. The mer- 
cantile movement may be estimated at about $15,000,000 per annum. 
Imports include clothing, textile fabrics, hardware, drugs, paper, 
wines and liquors, cofi^ee, tea, machinery, implements, arms, etc., esti- 
mated at a value of about $8,000,000 per annum. 

Communications. — The Mexican National Railroad crosses the State 
from west to northeast, having 31 stations in its course of 280 kilo- 
meters. The Montery and Gulf of Mexico road crosses it from west 



122 MEXICO. 

tii south on its way to tho State of Tamaulipas. A branch of the 
Mexican National, from Matamoros to ^Monterey is in process of con- 
struction. There are '20 kiUMiieters of tramways, all starting from 
Monterey, also tine wagon roads in all directions. Telegraph, tele- 
phone, and mail service is efficient. 

IndMStries. — In addition to the manufacturing industries connected 
with the sugar interests, there are three large cotton mills, also one 
for the manufacture of cloth and cassimeres, and several chocolate, 
rope. beer, and match establishments. 

Divisions. — Xuevo Leon is divided into 48 municipalities, grouped as 
follows: Municipalities of the north, 17; of the east, 11; of the south, 
13; of the west, 3, and of the center, 1. 

The principal cities of the municipalities are: 

Northern group:" Lampazos de iSaranjo, population 8,586, on the 
^lexican National Railway. 151 kilometers from Monterey; Villal- 
dama. population 6.110, on the same road, 91 kilometers from ]Monte- 
rey, and Sabinas Hidalgo, population 7,318. 

Eastern group: Cadereyta tTimeuez, population 18,010, on the Mon- 
terey and Gulf Line. 12 kilometers from the capital of the State, and 
Cerralvo. population 6,069, 125 kilometers from Monterey. 

Southern group: Santiag-o, 12.655 population. 12 kilometers from 
Monterey: Montemorelos. population 18.143. on the Monterey and 
Gulf Line, 96 kilometers from the capital; Linares, population 19,363, 
the second city in the State, 180 kilometers from Monterey, and Doctor 
Arroyo. 22.350 population. 302 kilometers from Monterey. 

Western group: Garcia, population 5,107, which is the only large 
town in this section, situated on the Mexican National Line, 37 kilo- 
meters from Monterey. This portion of the State contains two large 
cotton mills, one at Garza Garcia, with 17,710 spindles and 72 looms, 
producing from 15,000 to 20,000 pieces per annum, and another at 
Santa Catarina, population 1.383, whose output is estimated at 16,000 
pieces. 

(Central municipality, or the municipality of 31outerey. population 
72.963, contains the capital of the State, Monterey, with 62,626 inhab- 
itants, situated 975 kilometers from the City of Mexico by wagon road 
and 1,079 by the Mexican National Line. Monterey is a handsome city, 
possessing very fine public buildings and all the conveniences of civ- 
ilization. It is the first commercial city of the northern Mexican 
frontier, and is connected by rail with the principal cities of ]\lexico 
and the Cnited States. Among its industrial establishments are a 
blanket and eassimere factory, breweries, ice factories, foundries, saw- 
mills, flour mills, chocolate, match, wagon, and carriage factories. 
There are three tramways, measuring 13 kilometers in length, that 

<?OnlT towns of 3.000 inhabitants or over are mentioned. 



OAXACA. 123 

cross the city. It also possesses a bank and chamber of commerce. 
The Federal assay office during 19<.'2; treated gold for export to the 
value of §842,715, and silver for over $10,700,000. 

OAXACA. 

The State of Oaxaca de Juarez, population 948,633, capital city 
Oaxaca, 1.546 meters altitude, population 35,049. is one of the most 
important sections of the Eepublic. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the States of Puebla and Veracruz 
on the north. Yeracmz and a portion of Chiapas on the northeast 
and east, Chiapas and the Pacific Ocean on the south, and the State 
of Guen-ero on the west and northwest. Its area is 91,664 square 
kilometers. 

Topogrophy . — Oaxaca occupies a beautiful and fertile region, irri- 
gated by a number of rivers and lesser streams which traverse the 
numerous valleys. The Sierre Madre Mountains cross the whole State, 
their ramifications extending throughout the territorv, and formino- 
such valleys as the Xochithin or Mixteco, 2,111 meters above sea level. 
The maritime range, called Sierra del Sur. is composed of high moun- 
tains whose slopes are covered by virgin forests. The Zempoaltepec. 
3,397 meters in height, is the starting point of the several ramifications 
of the Sierra Madre. The beautiful valley of Oaxaca or Antequera 
occupies the greater part of the central region, the San Felipe del 
Agua peak, 3,125 meters above sea level, representing its highest alti- 
tude. Other mountain tops vary in height from 1.300 to 2.275 meters. 
The Isthmus of Tehuautepec is traversed by the Tarifa and Cliimalpa 
mountains. 

Oaxaca is one of the maritime States of Mexico bordering on the 
Pacific Ocean, and has a coast line of 410 kilometers. These shores are 
low and sandy. The natural ports are Chacahua. Puerto Escondido, 
Puerto Angel, San Augustin Huatule^, San Diego. La Ventosa. and 
Salina Cruz, the latter being the starting point of the international 
railroad that is to connect the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. 
Salina Cruz is an open port with a deep harbor, where the largest ves- 
sels may safely anchor. Puerto Angel is a sheltered port, quite deep, 
but too narrow to permit the passage of large vessels. These are the 
only ports open to foreign and coastwise traffic. There are nimiberless 
bavs, bars, roads, and a few islands. The Gulf of Tehuantepec is one 
of the most important in the Republic, being about 210 kilometers in 
length from east-southeast to west-northwest, and 55 kilometers from 
north to south, and afiording numerous j)orts, roads, harbors, and places 
of anchorage. 

Hydrography . — Most of the streams irrig-ating the State can not be 
properly called rivers on account of their short courses. The princi- 
pal ones, all draining into the Pacific, are: The Atoyac, 293 kilometers 



124 MEXICO. 

in leng'th, receiving' the waters of numerous tributaries; the Tehuan- 
tepec, which, with its numerous tributaries, traverses an extent of 294 
kilometers, and the Arena or Pinotepa, the Tonameca, and Copalita. 
The principal lakes are the Superior and the Inferior, both in the 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Aiotengo, and Chacahua, all communicating 
with the Pacific Ocean. 

Climate. — The climate is generally hot and unhealthy on the sea- 
(ioast and lowlands adjacent to the State of Veracruz, temperate in the 
valley of Oaxaca and on the mountain slopes, and cold in the higher 
altitudes and throughout almost the whole region of the Mixteca Alta. 
Rainfall is moderate in the State and frosts are of infrequent occur- 
rence. Fevers and afi'ections of th« digestive organs are most preva- 
lent, yellow fever occurring principally on the coast. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State present the same 
general features as in the other parts of the Republic. 

Resources. — The principal agricultural products of the State during 
the year 1902 are officially given as follows: Cereals, about $8,000,000; 
sugar-cane products (direct), 10,666,000 kilos, valued at $1,308,000; 
rum, $1,221,900; maguey products, $222,000; textile fibers, $100,000; 
coffee, $503,000, and tobacco, $60,000. The j'^early agricultural pro- 
duction of the State may be estimated at about $15,000,000. Stock 
raising represents a value of about $4,000,000, the leading species being 
sheep, goats, beef cattle, hogs, and horses. 

Mining. — From a mining standpoint Oaxaca is immensely rich, but 
so far its wealth has not been properly exploited. The principal 
minerals found are silver, gold, iron, lead, coal, marble, and salt. The 
number of claims registered during 1902 was 875, covering an area of 
6,880 hectares. The number of mines in operation during the same 
period was 45, with a total output, according to official figures, of about 
15,000,000 kilos, valued at $1,012,271. 

Trade. — The State maintains an active trade with the States of Vera- 
cruz, Puebla, and Chiapas, and sends its coffee, hides, cochineal, flour, 
sugar, minerals, indigo, oils, tobacco, and other products both abroad 
and to other parts of the Republic. The list of foreign imports embraces 
about 200 articles, the principal being machinery, agricultural imple- 
ments, hardware, canned goods, beer, wines and liquors, cotton, woolen 
and silk goods, etc. The ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel are 
maritime customs ports, their trade during the fiscal year 1901-2, 
according to the "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," being estimated at 
1100,000 for imports and $414,000 for exports. The entire trade of 
the State is calculated at from 16,000,000 to 18,000,000 pesos. 

Communications. — The Southern Mexican Railroad runs from Puebla 
to Oaxaca on its way to the Guatemalan frontier, with a branch linetoj 
Puerto Angel. The Interoceanic runs from Salina Cruz on the Pacifioj 
to Coatzocoalcos, on the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 304 kilometers.- 



OAXACA. 125 

The city of Oaxaca contains good tramways. The State is also in com- 
munication with the adjacent States by means of high roads, telegraph, 
and mail routes, there being also an efficient telephone service. Mari- 
time communication bj^ the ports of Salina Cruz and Puerto Angel is 
carried on by the Pacific Mail Steamship Compan}^, the Hamburg- 
American Line, and the Mexican Line '" Pacific and Gulf of California." 
There is also a line of steamers, owned by a Mexican company, navi- 
gating the river Papaloapam, and plying between Tlacotalpam (Vera- 
cruz) and Tuxtepec. 

Industries. — The industries of the State are agriculture and the 
extraction of the maguey fiber, called pita de Oaxaca, as well as the 
manufacture of woolen and cotton fabrics, furniture, pottery, candles, 
soap, matches, chocolate, and tobacco. 

Divisions.- — The State is divided into 20 districts, subdivided into 

463 municipalities, which according to their geographical position are 
grouped as follows: 

Northern: Silacayoapam, population, 29,133; Huajuapam, 45,043; 
Teposcolula, 32,814; Coixtlahuaca, 17,195; Teotitlan, 36,556; Cuica- 
tlan, 23,864, and Tuxtepec, 37,745; their principal towns being Sila- 
cayoapam, 277 kilometers from Oaxaca; Huajapan de Leon, 202 
kilometers from Oaxaca; Coixtlahuaca, or Villa de Libres, 120 kilome- 
ters from the capital of the State, and Tuxtepec, 260 kilometers from 
Oaxaca. 

Eastern: Villa Alta, population, 44,223; Choapam, 14,128; Tehaun- 
tepec, 34,948, and Yautepec, 25,245; the principal towns being Villa 
Alta, Choapam Santiago, Yautepec, and Tehauntepec, population 
10,386, the latter being the second city in the state, on the line of the 
Isthmian Interoceanic road, 294 kilometers from Oaxaca and 21 from 
the port of Salina Cruz, and is a fine, progressive town. 

Southern: Juchitan, population, 52,182; Miahuatlan, 42,947; Pochu- 
tla, 22,847; Juquila, 23,769, and Jamiltepec, 49,304, their principal 
cities being Juchitan, or Ciudad de Zaragoza, near the Interoceanic 
road; Miahuatlan, Pochutla, near Puerto Angel; Juquila, and Jamil- 
tepec. 

Western: Tlaxiaco, population, 69,460, and Juxtlahuaca, 21,139, 
with their principal towns Heroica Tlaxiaco, an important industrial 
town, and Juxtlahuaca or Villa Albino Zertuche. 

Central: Centro, population 72,024; Nochixtlan, 42,447; Villa Alva- 
rez or Zimatlan, 48,244; Ejutla, 25,107; Tlacolula, 42,124, and Ocotlan, 
34,066, the chief town of which is Oaxaca de Juarez, situated in the 
Centro district and capital of the State, with 35,049 inhabitants. It is 

464 kilometers from Mexico City, 340 from Puebla, and 464 from 
Veracruz. This is one of the handsomest and most advanced cities in 
the Republic, containing fine public buildings, tramways, and equipped 
with all modern conveniences. It is also the leading industrial and 



126 MEXICO. 

commercial center of the State. Other towns are Etla de Santiag'o, 
Nochixtlan A.sunci6n, Villa Alvarez or Zimatlan, Heroica Ejutla 
Crespo, Tlacolula de Matamoros, and Villa de Morelos or Ocotlan de 
Santo Domingo. < 

PUEBLA. 

The State of Puebla has a population of 1,021,133, its capital city, 
at an altitude of 2,162 meters, bearing- the same name. 

Boxmdaries. — The State is Iwunded on the north and east by Vera- 
cruz, on the south by Oaxaca and Guerrero, and on the west b}^ More- 
los, Mexico, and Hidalgo, its area being 31,616 square kilometers. 

Toj)ograpJiy. — The general topographical aspect is mountainous, the 
principal peaks being Popocatepetl and Ixtatzihuatl, the volcanoes of 
San Andres and Perote, and the mountain ranges Huauchinango, 
Zacatlan, Zacapoaxtle, Tezuitlan, and Mixtecas. The most important 
plains are San Juan de los Llanos, Chalchicomula, Tecamachalco, 
Tepeaca, Tepeji, and the principal valleys those of Texuclucan, Atlixco 
and Puebla. 

Hydrogra'phy . — Among the rivers may be named the Atoyac and its 
tributaries, the Vinasco, Pantepec, Cazones, Zempoala, and Mecaxa, 
the latter forming, in the district of Huauchinango, a beautiful cascade 
162 meters high. There are four lakes, called Quecholac, Tlachichica, 
Epatlan, and Tepehuaj^o. 

Climate. — The climate shows varying degrees of temperature, being 
temperate on the plains, hot in the south, and cold in the northern 
districts. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora present the same general 
characteristics peculiar to other States of the Republic, 

Resources. — Agriculture is the leading industry, the chief products 
being cereals, sugar cane, cofl'ee, vanilla, and delicious fruits of all 
kinds. Official figures for 1897 credit the State with 483 plantations, 
divided as follows: Three hundred and twent37'-eight devoted to cereals, 
67 to sugar cane, 26 to maguey pulque, 14 to cofl'ee, 6 to tobacco, and 
42 to cattle raising. The production for 1902 is given, officially, as 
follows: Rice, 2,112,625 kilos at $109,019; barley, 595,517 hectoliters 
at $1,328,180; corn to the value of 16,332,746, and wheat $1,912,473; 
sugar cane products (direct), $3,044,613; rum, $820,000; maguey 
products, $475,000; textile fibers, $14,000; coffee, $223,000; tobacco, 
$57,260; vanilla, $21,000. 

Mining . — Tho. principal minerals found are gold, silver, and copper, 
marble also existing in large quantities. During the year ending 
December 31, 1902, there were 152 mining claims registered, covering 
an area of 1,967 hectares. The output of 14 mines in operation 
during the same period is officially given as 47,604,000 kilos, with a 
value of $600,000. 

Trade. — The commerce of the State is characterized by the samej 



QUEEETARO. 127 

features as that of other States of the Republic, the exports consisting 
principally of agricultural products, and the imports of manufactured 
articles of common utility. 

Communications. — In addition to several wagon roads, the means of 
intercommunication in the State consist of a branch line of the Mexi- 
can Railroad from Puebla to Apizaco; the Interoceanic, connecting 
the State capital with the City of Mexico, and the Matamoros line. 
Telegraph, telephone, and mail services are efficient. 

Industries. — The manufacturing industries are similar in the main 
to those of the other Mexican States. 

Divisions.- — The State is divided into 21 districts, subdivided into 
municipalities. Geographically the districts may be grouped as 
follows : 

Northern group: Embracing Alatriste, population, S2,366; Huauchi- 
nango, 70,312; Tetela, 34,561; Tezuitlan, 31,017; Tlatlauquitepec, 
21,792; Zacapoaxtla, 32,853; and Zacatlan, 65,962; their principal 
cities are Chiguanapam, Huauchinango, Xicotepec, Tetela, Tequitlan, 
Tlatlanqui, Zacapaxtle and Zacatlan. 

Central group: Atlixco, population, 53,304; Cholula, 49,231; Huejot- 
zingo, 49,325; San Juan de los Llanos, 32,168; Chalchicomula, 70,984; 
Puebla, 109,432; Tecali, 28,860, and Tepeaca, 42,656. The principal 
towns are Atlixco, which is an important town on the Matamoros and 
Puebla Railroad, containing some fine public buildings, cotton mills, 
and other industrial establishments; San Pedro Cholutla, Huejotzingo, 
on the Interoceanic line; San Pedro de los Llanos, on the same line; 
San Andres Chalchicomula, on the Mexican Railway ; Tecali, Tepecaca, 
and Puebla, the capital, containing 93,521 inhabitants. This latter is 
one of the oldest and most important cities of the State, possessing 
many handsome buildings, among others the Cathedral and several 
churches, the State college, containing over 24,000 volumes; the Palace 
of Justice, the School of Medicine, and the " Palaf oxiana " Library, 
with more than 100,000 volumes; the Palace of Congress, the Episco- 
pal Palace, several hospitals, the Academy of Fine Arts, a chamber of 
commerce, and branches of the Banco Nacional, Banco Oriental, and 
the Banco de Londres y Mexico, and three theaters. The city is one 
of the most important in the Republic by reason of its commerce and 
industries, possessing several cotton and woolen mills, glass factories, 
and other establishments. 

Southern group: Acatlan, population, 46,364; Chiautla, 38,807; 
Matamoros, 37,573; Tehuacan, 78,129; Tepexi, 47,533, and Tecama- 
chalco, 47,901; the principal towns of which bear the same names. 

QUERETAKO. 

The State of Queretaro-Arteaga, population 232,389, whose capital 
city is Queretaro, 1,836 meters above the the sea, population 33,152, 



128 MEXICO. 

is one of the smallest in the Mexican Kepublic, rich in minerals, well 
irrigated, and prosperous. 

Bouiidaries. — Its boundaries are San Luis Potosi on the north, 
Hidalgo on the east and northeast, Mexico to the southeast, Michoa- 
can on the south, and Guanajuato on the west. The area is estimated 
at 11,638 square kilometers. 

Topography. — Topographicall}^ the State ma}" be divided into two 
regions, the northern portion being mountainous, the ranges extend- 
ing toward the center, while the central and southern sections are 
occupied hj plains and valleys. In the north are the Sierra Gordo 
Mountains, running from west to east, these mountains being also 
known as the Sierra de Queretaro. Among the peaks are the Cerro 
Alto, Cerro Colgado, Cerro del Campanario, Pilon, Santa Rosa, Cima- 
tario, Minteji, and the historic Cerro de las Campanas, where Maxi- 
milian, Miramon, and Mexia were shot. 

Hydrography. — Queretaro is irrigated by a large number of rivers 
and smaller streams, the principal being the Conca or Jalpan, empt}"- 
ing into the Ayutla; the Extoraz, the Moctezuma, the Galinda, 
Queretaro, Juriquilla, and their tributaries. There are several small 
lakes, the principal being Cerro Grande, Conca, Sancillo, and Saledon; 
also many swamps and mineral springs. 

Climate. — Climatic conditions vary with the altitudes. Rainfall 
and frosts are moderate, and the winds are variable. The prevailing 
diseases are malarial and other fevers; also affections of the respira- 
tory and digestive organs. 

Fauna and flora.- — The fauna and flora possess the same general 
characteristics as do those of the other Mexican States, being varied 
and abundant. 

Besources. — The State of Queretaro occupies a very fertile region, 
producing all kinds of cereals, leguminous plants, fruits, etc., so that 
agriculture is the principal industry. Cotton, sugar cane, and wheat 
are also cultivated, the latter yielding 100 grains to the seed and being 
considered the best in the Republic. In 1897 the number of planta- 
tions in the State were, according to official figures, 195; of which 179 
were devoted to the culture of cereals, 9 to maguey mescal, 2 to sugar 
cane, and 5 to cattle breeding. The 3'earh^ product of these industries 
was estimated in the following values for 1902: Cereals, $2;952,166; 
maguey products, 18,000 hectoliters, at 168,800; ixtb, 41,290 kilo- 
grams, at $5,294, and tobacco, $1,500. Stock may be estimated at a 
value of about $2,500,000. 

Mining. — Minerals abound throughout the entire State, Cadereyta 
and Tollman being the richest mining regions. The principal products 
are silver, galena, copper, iron, cinnabar, mercury, coal, and lead, 
while among the precious stones are opals, garnets, and similar 
deposits. There are 59 mines in the Cadere3'^ta district, 8 in Tollman, 



QUEEETAEO. 129 

and 35 in Jalpan. There are over 20 establishments for the reduction 
of ores, all of which, however, are not in operation. Official data for 
1902 give the number of claims registered to December 31, at 119, 
covering an area of 1,877 hectares, while the number of mines in 
operation at that date was 14, the output being estimated at 4,327,000 
kilos with a value of $150,000. 

Trade. — The trade of the State may be estimated at from 9,000,000 
to 10,000,000 pesos per annum. This is carried on principally with 
the neighboring States, corn, wheat, and other cereals, fruits, jerked 
beef, etc., being sent thither, and mineral products shipped to the 
United States. The imports follow the same general line as the 
imports of the other Mexican States, most of them coming from 
the United States, Europe, and Mexico Cit}^, and are estimated at a 
value of about $5,000,000, exports being calculated at $4,000,000. 

Co7nmunications. — The Mexican Central Railroad traverses the 
State from southeast to west for an extent of 95 kilometers, and has 
several stations. The various districts also are crossed by tramways, 
and good wagon roads are abundant, the mail, telegraph, and telephone 
services being especially efficient. 

Industries. — In addition to agriculture and mining, such industries 
as linen, woolen, and cotton-goods manufactories, flour mills, distill- 
eries, breweries, paper mills, etc. , flourish. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into 6 districts, subdivided into 
municipalities. The districts are: 

Jalpan, population 35,096, which is a rich mining section, and whose 
principal town is Jalpan, situated 127 kilometers from the capital of 
the State, Queretaro. 

Cadereyta, population 26,082, the richest mining district of the 
entire State; the chief town, Cadereyta Mendez, is 76 kilometers from 
Queretaro. 

San Juan del Kio, population 40,517; its chief town, bearing the 
same name and having a population of 8,224, is situated 59 kilometers 
from Queretaro, on the Central Railroad, and is the second city of the 
State. A line of street cars traverses the town. 

Tollman, population 28,017; its chief town Tollman, or San Pedro 
de Toliman, 117 kilometers from Queretaro, is noted for its opals. 

Queretaro, or Distrito del Centro, population 79,385, the chief town 
of which is Queretaro, 1,836 meters above the sea, also the capital of 
the State, situated 246 kilometers from the City of Mexico, and con- 
taining 33.152 inhabitants. Besides its great commercial importance, 
this city is perhaps the most interesting, historically, in Mexico, hav- 
ing been the cradle of Mexican independence, the residence of the 
Executive during the war with the United States, and the place where 
the peace treaty was signed in 1848; also the last refuge of Maximilian 
and the place of his execution. The principal buildings are the Fed- 
509a— 04 9 



130 MEXICO. 

eral Palace, the Government Palace (both built of basalt), the Muni- 
cipal Palace, the custom-house, the cathedral and other churches, sev- 
eral hospitals, the historic ""Iturbide" Theater, a bank, a chamber of 
commerce, and the bull ring-. An excellent aqueduct, 8 kilometers in 
length, furnishes the supply of water, and several cotton. and woolen 
mills, and other industrial enterprises are in a flourishing- condition. 
The town next in importance in the district is Plercules, notable on 
account of the Hercules Mills, the largest textile factory in tl:^ 
Republic. 

Amealco, population 23,292, with a chief town of the same name 
situated 67 kilometers from Queretaro. 

SAN LUIS POTOSf. 

The State of San Luis de Potosi, population 575,432, or 9.25 inhab- 
itants per square kilometer, the capital of which is the city of the same 
name, at an altitude of 1,877 meters, and a population of 61,000, is one 
of the important sections of the country. 

Boundaries. — The State lies between 22° and 25° north latitude and 
is bounded on the north by the State of Coahuila; on the east by the 
States of Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, and Veracruz; on the southeast by 
the State of Jalisco; on the south by the States of Hidalgo, Queretaro. 
and Guanajuato, and on the west by the State of Zacatecas. The 
Tropic of Cancer passes through the northern part of this State at a 
point about 23 kilometers to the south of the famous mining district of 
Catorce. 

Climate.- — The climate is mild. It varies somewhat according to the 
elevation, cool weather occurring in the higher altitudes during the 
winter months, and warm weather prevailing at all seasons of the year 
in the lower ones. 

Tojpograpliy . — The State is traversed from north to south by the 
Sierra Madre range and is very mountainous, especially in the eastern 
portion. The central and western parts consist of the elevated table- 
land, which extends from north to south through that portion of the 
Mexican Republic. The greater part of this table-land is exceedingly 
dry, but where water can be obtained for irrigation purposes the soil 
proves to be fertile and productive. 

Hydrography. — The southeastern portion is well watered and con- 
tains numerous running streams, some of them of considerable volume 
and importance. The principal rivers are the Tantojon and Tamuin, 
which flow into the Panuco River. 

Fauna and jlora. — The fauna and flora of the State of San Luis 
Potosi are in all respects as rich and varied as those of any other Mexican 
section. 

Resources. — Agriculture, stock raising, and mining are the principal 
resources of the State, agricultural products being exceedingly varied. 



SAN LUIS POTOSI. 131 

and, where properly irrigated, the rich soil produces abundant crops. 
According- to Mexican official statistics, San Luis Potosi contained, in 
1897, 196 large plantations, 3 of which were devoted exclusively to 
the cultivation of coffee, 39 to sugar cane, 139 to cereals, and 15 to 
the products of the century or maguey plant. The "Anuario Estadis- 
tico" for 1902 credits the State with the following agricultural prod- 
ucts: Cereals (rice, barley, corn, and wheat) to the value of 15,637,085; 
sugar cane products, rum excepted, 1,129,816 kilos, valued at $296,210; 
rum, 36,500 hectoliters, at $613,113; maguey products (mescal and 
pulque), 51,270 hectoliters, at $556,600; textile fibers (ixtle and cotton), 
3,773,992 kilograms, valued at 1516,000. 

Stock raising in San Luis Potosi is in a flourishing and prosperous 
condition, and some authorities claim that it is the most important 
industr}^ of the State, exceeding in value the agricultural industry. 
In addition to the large native herds which the State possesses, thou- 
sands of cattle are brought in annually from the neighboring States of 
Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas to graze and fatten upon th^ 
grass}^ plains of the table-lands and mountain slopes. When considered 
to be in a marketable condition, the beef cattle are separated from the 
herds, driven to the railway stations, and shipped to the City of Mexico, 
and other large distributing centers of the Republic. There are some 
thirty large ranches in the State devoted exclusively to the raising of 
cattle. 

Mining. — The mineral wealth of the State is very great. The great 
mining district of Catorce is famous the world over for its enormous 
deposits of silver ores. Immense quantities of high and low grade 
ores are taken from the rich mines of this district annuall}^ Some of 
these mines have been worked more than fifty years without exhausting 
the supply of ore, and are still great producers. The argentiferous 
ores of this district contain a considerable percentage of lead, which 
adds to their value and desirability for smelting purposes. The 
immense output is shipped to the smelters at San Luis Potosi, Aguas- 
calientes, and Monterey for treatment. A large number of other min- 
erals are mined in different parts of the State. The principal mining 
districts are: Catorce, Matehuaia, Cedral, San Luis Guadalcazar, and 
Salinas. Silver, lead, and copper ores are found in these districts in 
great abundance. Cinnabar is mined at Santa Maria del Rio, Gua- 
dalcazar, and Salinas; copper at Matehuaia, and gold at Guadalcazar. 
The value of the annual silver production of the mines of the State is 
estimated at $3,000,000 Mexican silver. There are numerous salt 
deposits in this State, the largest and most important being situated at 
Penon Blanco, on the Mexican Central Railway. The works at this 
place produce thousands of tons of fine salt annually. The number of 
mining claims registered to December 31, 1902, was 337, covering an 
area of 7,561 hectares, while the number of mines in operation during 



132 MEXICO. 

the same period is officially given at 32, with a total output of 88,018,014 
kilos, valued at 13,323,152. During- the same year the Federal assay 
at San Luis Potosi treated gold and silver to the value of $39,000 for 
coining purposes, and to the value of $5,816,400 for export. 

Trade. — The principal exports are to the United States, and consist 
of goatskins, bones for the manufacture of phosphorus, fruits from 
the Rio Verde region shipped to St. Louis, and cattle which are 
exported to Cuba. 

Communications.- — A branch of the Mexican Central Railway trav- 
erses the State from east to west. This branch line connects with the 
main line of the Mexican Central Railway at a point near the city of 
Aguascalientes, in the State of the same name. Its total length is 678 
kilometers, about two-thirds of which is in the State of San Luis 
Potosi. This branch railway passes through San Luis Potosi, the 
capital of the State, and terminates at the port of Tampico, in the State 
of Tamaulipas. The main line of the Mexican National Railway 
crosses the State from north to south, placing both the State and city 
of San Luis Potosi in direct communication, via Laredo, Tex., with 
the United States. The' Mexican National passes through the impor- 
tant cities of Monterey, State of Nuevo Leon; Saltillo, State of Coa- 
huila, and the city of San Luis Potosi, terminating in the City of 
Mexico, the capital of the Republic. The principal stations of the 
Mexican National in the State of San Luis Potosi are the city of San 
Luis Potosi, Venado, and Catorce. The Mexican Central Railway, 
in addition to passing through the capital of the State, runs through 
the important mining and commercial centers of Salinas, Guadalcazar, 
Cerritos, Cardenas, and Valle. There are two other railwa}^ lines, 
both short. One extends from Matehuala to La Paz, a distance of 21 
kilometers, while the other is known as the Vanegas, Cedral and 
Matehuala Railroad, and connects Vanegas, a station of the Mexican 
National Railway, with Matehuala, the length of the line being 47 
kilometers. These two short railways penetrate one of the richest! 
mining districts of the Republic, and transj)ort annually thousands of 
tons of ore consigned to the different smelters of the State. Gener- 
ally speaking, the State highways are good, but the roads which 
cross the mountains are mere trails and in many places are almost 
impassible. 

Industries. — San Luis Potosi contains one of the largest furniture 
factories in the Republic. This factor}^ is very complete and its prod- 
ucts are to be found in many of the Mexican cities. Almost all the 
wood used comes from the United States. This seems unusual in a 
country so rich in cabinet woods, but it is owing to the fact that 
mahogany and the other fine woods of Tabasco and Chiapas can not 
be worked until they are seasoned, which takes considerable time. As 



SAN LUIS POTOSI. 



133 



the shops of San Luis Potosi do not keep a sufficiently large stock on 
hand, they prefer to buy the seasoned wood in the United States. 
Walnut lumber is principally employed for the fine furniture. The 
other industries of the city are cotton-goods factories, tanneries, 
breweries, etc. 

Divisicms. — The State of San Luis Potosi is divided into thirteen 
districts, the name and population of each being as follows: 



Catorce 

Cerritos 

Ciudad del Maiz 

Guadaleazar 

Hidalgo 

Rio Verde 

Salinas.. 

San Luis Potosi . 



Popula- 
. tion. 



70, 899 
30, 792 
31, 172 
30, 263 
44,094 
41,517 
12, 319 
144, 101 



Name. 



Santa Maria del Rio 

Tamanzunchale 

Tancanhuitz 

Valles 

Venado 

Total 



Popula- 
tion. 



38,257 
36, 265 
40, 960 
22, 001 
32, 792 



576, 432 



San Luis Potosi, the capital of the State, has a population of 61,019 
inhabitants, and is located 1,887 meters above sea level. It is one of 
the principal smelting and commercial centers of the Republic. Hun- 
dreds "of tons of ore are smelted daily in the large reduction works 
situated in the suburbs of this city. Thousands of workmen are 
employed in the handling of ores, and hundreds of thousands of dol- 
lars are paid out to them annually in the form of wages. The city 
contains many large and handsome public buildings, churches, and 
schools, and has one of the finest theaters in the Republic. It is a 
healthful community, the climate is salubrious, but little rain falls, 
and the atmosphere is clear and dry. The water supply is at present 
somewhat deficient, but steps are being taken for the construction of 
large reservoirs in the neighboring hills to remedj^ this defect. Con- 
siderable manufacturing is done at San Luis Potosi, the principal 
products being soap and candles, pottery wares, hats, paints, cigars 
and cigarettes, beer, etc. There is a chamber of commerce, a Federal 
assay office, three large banking institutions, and a Board of Trade. 

In 1902 San Luis Potosi had 173 State and 162 municipal schools 
devoted to primary education. The Government also maintains sev- 
eral institutions of higher education, the principal school being the 
Scientific and Literary Institute, located at the capital of the State, 
which has an able corps of professors and is otherwise well equipped. 

The other large towns of the State are shown in the following 
table : 



Name. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Name. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Catorce 


7,203 

6,333 

14,205 

5,759 




8,440 
5,730 
5,750 


Cedral 


Soledad Diez Gutierrez 


Matehuala 




Rio Verde 









134 MEXICO. 

SINALOA. 

The State of Sinaloa, population 296,701, whose capital city is Culia- 
can, 40 meters above the sea level, population 10,380, is one of the 
rich mining and agricultural sections of the Mexican Republic. 

Boundaries. — ^^It is bounded on the north by Sonora and Chihuahua, 
on the east by Chihuahua and Durango, on the south b}^ the Territory 
of Tepic and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia. Its area is about 71,380 square kilometers, and its seacoast 
measures 610 kilometers. 

Situation. — The Gulf of California extents along the coast of the 
State from Agiabampo Bay to the south of Mazatlan, at which point 
the Pacific coast line begins. Numerous bays and harbors are formed 
by the waters of the gulf, the principal being the bay of Topolobampo, 
on which is situated the port of the same name, g'enerally considered 
to be the best on the Pacific coast by reason of its sheltered location. 
There are also the bays of Olas Altas, Mazatlan, Agiobampo, San 
Ignacio, Navachiste, and others indenting the litoral of the State, and 
forming small interior bays, in whose waters appear the islands of 
Mero, San Felipe, and Pajaros. Other islands along the coast are 
Saliaca, Altamura, Lobos, San Ignacio, Guinorama, Macapule, Cluendo, 
and Cuestion. 

Topography. — The general topographical condition of the State is 
mountainous, the land rising gradually from the gulf coast to the 
Sierra Madre Mountains, which traverse Sinaloa north and south and 
constitute the principal range of the section. Others are the Sanabari 
Mountains, the Gacopira, Aguablanca, Cosala, Guadalupe de los Reyes, 
Tasajera, J^avachiste, Cuitaboa, and Tescalama. These systems 
embrace several peaks and plateaus. 

Hydrography. — Sinaloa is one of the best irrigated sections of the 
Republic, manj^ of its rivers, such as the Fuerte and Sinaloa, being 
navigable. Nearly all the streams rise in the Sierra Madre and empty 
into the Gulf of California, the principal being the Fuerte, 670 kilo- 
meters in length; the Sinaloa, 420 kilometers; the Moscorite, 108 kilo- 
meters; the Culiacan, 252 kilometers; the Quila, 156 kilometers; the 
Elota, 221 kilometers; the Piaxtle, 203 kilometers; the Presidio or 
Mazatlan, 167 kilometers; the Chametla or Rosario, 165 kilometers, 
and the Canoas or Telapan, 152 kilometers. These rivers all have 
numerous tributaries, and there are in addition over 200 smaller streams 
traversing the State. 

Clirfiate. — Climatically the State may be divided into two regions: 
The western, or hot belt, which is also the maritime section, devoted 
to agriculture, and the eastern, or cold belt, which is the mountainous 
district, devoted to mining. Rains are abundant on the coast, and in 
the mountains the precipitation is excessive, frost also being of frequent 
occurrence. Wields are variable, the northeastern predominating. 



"SINALOA. " 135 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora partake of the same char- 
acteristics as the majority of Mexican States. 

Resources. — The principal agricultural products are cereals, cotton, 
tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, and fruits, their total valuation being 
about $8,000,000 per annum. According to Mexican ofiicial figures, 
in 1897 there were 121 plantations in the State, divided as follows: 
Cotton, 9; sugar cane, 20; cereals, 20; maguey mescal, 24; and 48 
cattle ranches. The estimated value of these products for 1902 is as 
follows, in round figures: Cereals, $2,000,000; sugar-cane products 
(direct), 7,919,225 kilograms, at $1,575,900; mescal, 1180,000; tobacco, 
$32,000; and ixtle, $30,000. Stock raising has an estimated value of 
about $9,000,000 a year. 

Mining. — It is claimed that Sinaloa is the richest mining region of 
Mexico, the standard of its production being higher than that of 
Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Pachuca. The mining district lies in the 
east of the State, gold, silver, copper, iron, and lead being the prin- 
cipal metals. The number of mining clainis registei'ed in 1902 was 
711, covering 5,903 hectares, while the total output of the State is 
estimated at 138,225,108 kilos, valued at $5,159,000. The number of 
mines in operation was 80. There are also rich salt deposits, mineral 
springs, etc. Culiacan Kosales contains fine reduction works and a 
mint. 

Trade.— kxi active import and export trade is carried on through 
the port of Mazatlan, manufactured articles of all kinds being received 
in return for minerals and other native products. Altata and Ma- 
zatlan are the two customs ports. Imports in 1901-2 are valued at 
about $1,760,000, and exports, $7,214,000, while the total trade, 
including local traific, amounts to from 18,000,000 to 19,000,000 pesos 
per annum. 

Communications.- — The Sinaloa and Durango Railway, also called 
the Western Mexican, has several stations between Altata and Culia- 
can de Rosales, and the International is constructing a branch line 
from Villa Lerdo (Durango) to Topolobampo, in addition to the Tepic 
road, which is to traverse the coast. There are tramways in the city 
of Mazatlan and many fine wagon roads connecting the principal 
towns with those of the adjacent States. Coastwise trade is carried 
on by several steamship lines, while the Pacific Mail and the Mexican 
International line furnish communication with foreign countries. The 
telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are eificient and extensive. 

Dimsio7is. — The State is politically divided into 10 districts, subdi- 
Tided into directorias., as follows: 

El Fuerte, population 45,530, with a chief town of the same name, 
230 kilometers from Culiacan,'the State capital. 

Sinaloa, population 43,432; its chief town of the same name is 160 
kilometers from Culiacan. 



136 MEXICO, 

Mocorito, population 28,628, the chief town of which, bearing the 
same name, is situated 22 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Culiacan, population 44,344; its chief town, Culiacan Resales, is 
also the capital of the State, containing 10,380 inhabitants and situated 
1,478 kilometers from the capital of the Republic. This is an important 
commercial center, connected with the port of Altata by a railroad 02 
kilometers in length, possessing very tine public })uildings, among 
others the Government palace, the Mint, the total coinage of which 
for 1902 was gold to the value of $158,496 and silver 18,301,744, and 
the Cathedral. Cotton mills and other industrial establishments flour- 
ish. Next in importance is the city of Altata, a seaport having a 
large maritime movement. It is provided with a tine wharf, a power- 
ful beacon light, and a custom-house. 

Cosala, population 21,399; its chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 151 kilometers from Culiacan. 

San Ignacio, population 13,283, with a chief town of the same name 
situated 250 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Mazatlan, population 38,298. The chief town, Mazatlan, population 
17,852, is the first port of the Republic, situated 246 kilometers from 
Culiacan and 1,185 from the City of Mexico. It is built on a small 
peninsula opposite the Bay of Olas Altas and contains a weather 
bureau, a fine custom-house, a chamber of commerce, three banks, 
and other public buildings, and a system of tramway's. It is the fore- 
most commercial and industrial Mexican town on the Pacific Ocean, 
the residence of several foreign consuls, and the touching point for 
the steamship lines above referred to. 

Rosario, population 27,047; the chief town, bearing the same name, 
is 322 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Concordia, population 17,817; the chief town, bearing the same 
name, is 299 kilometers from Culiacan. 

Badiraguato, population 16,923; its chief town, of the same name, 
situated 76 kilometers from Culiacan. 

SONORA. 

The State of Sonora, population 221,682, the capital city of which is 
Hermosillo, 253 meters altitude, population 10,613, is one of the most 
northern of the Mexican States, and is on the United States border. 
In size it is the second State in the Republic, having an area of 198,496 
square kilometers. 

£ounda7'ies.— Its boundaries are: On the north, Arizona and New 
Mexico (United States); on the east. Chihuahua; on the west, the Gulf 
of California, and on the south, Sinaloa. 

Situation. — The State is washed' by the Gulf of California for a 
distance of 860 kilometers, from the mouth of the Colorado River to 
the port of Agiabampo. This gulf is 1,190 kilometers in length and 



SONORA. 137 

306 in breadth, at its widest point. Tlie Sonora littoral, which is low 
and arid, extends in a line almoat parallel to Lower California, a pecu- 
liarity of the region being that the rain falls from a cloudless and serene 
sky. Several islands lie along the coast, among them being San Pedro 
Nolasco, San Pedro Martin, Tiburon, Patos, San Jorge, and Pelicano; 
as well as many capes, bays, etc. Guaymas is the principal gulf port 
of the State. 

Topograpluj. — In the east Sonora is traversed b}^ the Sierra Madre 
Mountains, from which extend various ramifications forming beautiful 
vallej^s, ravines, and can3^ons. The principal of these secondary 
chains are the Sierras Guadalupe, San Luis, Batuco, Alamos, Antimez, 
Bacatete, and Prietas. The western portion is flat, and the largest 
valley is that of Guaymas. 

Hydrography. — The principal rivers, all of which empty into the 
Gulf of California, are the Altar, also called Asuncion and San Igna- 
cio, 358 kilometers in length; the Yagui, 838 kilometers; the Mayo, 
293 kilometers; the Sonora, 410 kilometers, and the Matope, 234 
kilometers. There are other streams of lesser importance, and a lake, 
called San Rafael. 

Climate. — The climate varies according to the altitude, is cold in 
the mountains, temperate on the slopes, and hot and dry near the 
coast and in the valle3^s. During the summer season the thermometer 
reaches 98° F. in Hermosillo, and in Guaymas it has gone as high as 
119°. The minimum temperature for the winter months is 45°. 
Rainfall is moderate, and frost occurs occasionally in some districts, 
more especially in the Sierra Madre regions. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora are remarkable for their 
wealth and variety, embracing the same species common to the rest of 
the country. The Gulf of California is noted for its fish and for its 
pearl oysters, the latter, it is claimed, yielding gems superior to those 
of the Gulf of Aden, in Asia. 

^esorrrce^s'.— Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, a lack of ade- 
quate irrigation facilities, in certain sections, is a drawback to agri- 
cultural development. The principal products are cereals, tobacco, 
cotton, sugar cane, fruits, etc. According to the official figures for 
1897, the number of plantations in the State was 270, divided into: 
Sugarcane, 40; cereals, 179; fruits, 3; maguey mescal, 8; tobacco, 13, 
and 27 cattle ranches. The State's production for 1902, according to 
official figures, was as follows: Cereals to the value of 13,961,906; 
sugar-cane products, 200,000 kilograms, at $40,000; mescal, $710,000; 
tobacco, 238,657 kilograms, at $58,932. 

At one time cattle were extensively exported to the United States, 
but owing to the high duties, almost prohibitory, imposed by that 
country this branch of commerce has decreased. 



138 MEXICO. 

Mining. — Sonora is classed not only among tlie richest mineral- 
producing- sections of Mexico, but also of the world, the leading prod-- 
ucts being silver, lead, gold, copper, coal, antimony, iron, cinnabar, 
and graphite. Exports of these minerals to the United States are 
estimated at a value of from 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 pesos per annum. 
Although many of the mines are in exploitation, an equal number are 
lying idle. In the year ending December 31, 1902, the mining claims 
registered numbered 2,168, embracing an area of 35,894 hectares, 
while the total production of the 144 mines in operation during that 
period was 362,235,748 kilos, valued at $41,144,000. 

Trade. — Owing to its geographical position all the foreign trade of 
the State is with the adjacent States and Territories of the American 
Union, while its home trade is carried on with Sinaloa, Chihuahua, 
and Lower California. The principal exports are metals and metallic 
ores, fruits, hides and skins, woods, etc., to the United States, wheat, 
flour, and cotton to Sinaloa and Chihuahua, pearls to Europe and the 
United States; and the principal imports are machinery and implements 
for mining and agriculture, silk, cotton, linen and woolen goods, wines 
and liquors, arms and ammanition, and hardware. The total trade of 
the State may be estimated as worth from 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 pesos 
per annum. 

Communications.— T\iQ only railway traversing the State is the 
Guaymas and Nogales (Sonora) road, 422,302 kilometers in length, 
which, in Nogales (Arizona), connects with the Southern Pacific 
Railroad. The State has one street railway 3 kilometers in length, 
and the "Imuris Mining Company, Limited," owns another 18 kilo- 
meters long, and three concessions have been granted. Several fine 
wagon roads connect the different cities and towns with those of the 
adjacent States. Telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are effi- 
cient and extended. 

Industries. — The principal industries are mining, agriculture, and 
commerce. There are a few manufacturing establishments, such as 
cotton and woolen mills, soap and candle factories, and distilleries. 

Divisions. — Sonora is divided into 9 districts, subdivided into munici- 
palities. The districts and their chief towns are as follows: 

Altar, population 13,229; chief town El Altar, 2.16 kilometers from 
Hermosillo. This district is rich in mines. 

Magdalena, population 15,568; the chief town, of the same name, 
is 150 kilometers from Hermosillo. The second town in importance 
is Nogales, on the boundary line between Mexico and the United States, 
separated from the American town of the same name by a street only. 
It is the terminal point of the Sonora Railway and has a customs port. 

Arizpe, population 18,261, also rich in minerals; its chief town, of 
the same name, is 219 kilometers distant from Hermosillo. 



TABASCO. l89 

Moctezuma, population 17,606, rich in mines; its chief town, Moc- 
tezuma or Oposura, is 185 kilometers from Hermosillo. 

Sahuaripa, population 12,955, a mineral district; the chief town of 
which, of the same name, is 323 kilometers from Hermosillo. 

Alamos, population 57,837, a mineral district, with a chief town of 
the same name, which is the third city in the State and situated 309 
kilometers from Hermosillo. 

Guaymas, population 28,070, also a mineral district, possessing 
excellent coal beds; the chief town of which, Guaymas, 8,648 inhabi- 
tants, is one of the most important commercial ports on the Pacific, 151 
kilometers from Hermosillo. It is connected by rail with Nogales. 

Hermosillo, population 32,562, very rich in mines; chief town, 
Hermosillo, is also the capital of the State, with 10,613 inhabitants, 
and situated 2,527 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 281 from 
Nogales, and 111 from Guaymas. This city has many fine public 
buildings, among others the Federal assay office, which in 1902 assaj^fed 
gold and silver for coining purposes to the value of $70,000 and for 
export to the value of $370,000, the Cathedral, a library, and the Gov- 
ernment Palace. It is one of the railroad stations of the Sonora Line. 

Ures, population 25,594; chief town of the same name 76 kilometers 
from Hermosillo. 

TABASCO. 

The State of Tabasco, population 159,834, whose capital city is San 
Juan Bautista, rising from 14 to 27 meters altitude, population 10,543, 
lies in the southeastern part of the Republic. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the Gulf of Mexico on the north, 
the State of Campeche on the east, Chiapas on the south, Veracruz on 
the west, and the Republic of Guatemala on the southeast. Its area is 
26,094 square kilometers. 

Situation. — On the Gulf the coast line of the State extends for 190 
kilometers, and is low and healthful, the natural depression of the soil 
forming several lakes. There are no capes, bays, or sheltered harbors 
along the coast, but vessels find anchorage in the mouths of the rivers, 
called bars, the principal of which are the San Pedro and San Pablo, 
formed by the river bearing that name at the boundary between 
Tabasco and Campeche; the Tabasco, Frontera, or Principal, formed 
by the Grijalva, giving access to the port of Frontera and the capital 
of the State; the Chiltepec, which is the widest and deepest of all, 
formed by the Gonzalez River, and the Tonala, formed by the river 
Tancochopa, the boundary between Tabasco and Veracruz. 

Toj)ography. — The surface of the State is generally a plain, slightly 
broken by hillocks and river beds, except toward the south and south- 
east, where a spur of the Sierra Madre rises.« The highest mountains. 



140 MEXICO. 

are the Ixtapangajoya, the Cocona, Puyacateugo, Madrigal, Quemado, 
Tortuguero, Limon, and Chinal. 

HydrograjyJiy. — Of all the States of Mexico, Tabasco possesses the 
best hydrographic sj^stem. Two large basins, the Usamacinta and the 
Grijalva, collect the innumerable streams. The Usumacinta River is 
formed by the junction of the Pasion and Salina rivers (both entering 
from Guatemalan territory), and is afterwards joined by the waters of 
the Chajill, Jatate, Lacantan, Cendales, and others. This river is 800 
kilometers in length, and navigable 300 kilometers from its mouth for 
good-sized steamers. The Grijalva River is formed by the confluence 
of the Mexcalapa and the Sierra, or Tacotalpa. The former rises in 
the State of Chiapas, and receives throughout its extent more than 30 
streams, and is navigable for 125 kilometers. The Tacotalpa also takes 
its source in Chiapas, and has numerious tributaries. The Grijalva 
proper commences with the junction of l;hese two streams, and 
empties into the Gulf of Mexico, and is navigable from the Frontera 
bar as far as Las Palmas, a distance of 280 kilometers. Other rivers 
are the Cuxcuchopa, navigable for 60 kilometers, the Soledad, Coc- 
cohital, Tular, Tortuguero, and Tonala. As has been stated, the gen- 
eral character of the land being a plain, with little slope seaward, the 
rain waters form many lakes. The principal are Matillas, Chichicastre, 
Zapote, Viento, Ramon, Bernete, Palo Alto, Ballo, Largarten, Encan- 
tada, Veladero, Chimal, and Puerto Cabello. 

Climate. — The climate is hot, tempered, however, by the numerous 
streams. Rainfall is abundant, and the temperature during the sum- 
mer months (February to May) is from 27^ to 28= C. (80° to 82° F.), 
and in the coolest months (December and January) the mean tempera- 
ture is from 17° to 18° C. (62° to 6±° F.). The prevalent diseases are 
malarial fevers and d3^senter3' . 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora of the State are both rich 
and varied, including all the species found in other parts of the 
Republic situated in the same zone. 

Resources. — Agriculture, and the industries directl}^ derived from it, 
constitutes the source of future development; the soil, on account of 
its topography, is peculiarly rich in spontaneous vegetation. The 
work* from which the data referring to the State of Tabasco are 
obtained states that the agricultural production amounts in value to 
8,000,000 pesos annually, of which 6,000,000 represents the home con- 
sumption and the remainder export values. Throughout the State 
20,000 men are engaged in farniing, 6,000 of whom are plantation 
owners. The leading products are cacao, sugar cane, cofl'ee, tobacco, 
corn, rice, fruits, rubber, pepper, vanilla, cedar, mahogany, logwood, 
and other dye and cabinet woods. According to the "Anuario Esta- 

«Eesena Economica del Estado de Tabasco. Alberto Oorrea, 1899. 



TABASCO. 141 

jdistico" for 1897, the number of plantations in Tabasco was 370, 
divided as follows: Cacao, 124; coffee, 8; sugar cane, 44; cereals, 60; 
itobacco, 12, and 122 cattle ranches. The production of the State for 
J1901-2 is officiall}^ quoted as follows: Cereals to the value of $1,300,000; 
sugar cane products, except rum, 2,588,000 kilos, valued at 1226,500; 
rum, 27,646 hectoliters, at $423,354; logwood, 2,329,800 kilos, at 
165,000; cacao, $1,551,391; coffee, $120,000; tobacco, $50,000; chicle 
gum, $280,600. 

» Stock raising, notwithstanding the great facilities offered by nature, 
lis not as flourishing as should be, the number of cattle being esti- 
mated by Correa at about 150,000 head. 

I Mining. — Mining receives practically no attention, no precious min- 
jerals being found within the limits of the State; but there are indica- 
tions of deposits of coal, asphaltum, cinnabar, and petroleum. 

Trade. — Commerce is well developed, there being, according to the 
authorit}^ above cited, 500 commercial houses, representing a capital 
of ^4,000,000, established throughout the State. Foiieign trade through 
the port of Frontera during 1901-2 amounted to $416,000 silver for 
imports and $271,354 for exports. A large share of the trade in dye 
and cabinet woods seems to be carried on through the port of Carmen, 
amounting in value to $1,400,000, which would increase the export 
jtrade of the State to over $1,600,000 yearly. The leading articles of 
Ijexport are dye and cabinet woods, hides and skins, coffee, tobacco, 
land rubber. Coastwise and local trade is estimated at a valuation of 
l$l,500,000 for imports and $1,900,000 for exports, 
i Oom7nunicatio7is.— Tabasco has no steam railways, but there are 
pthree lines of horse cars, one from San Juan Bautista to Carrizal, 
I'^bout 6 kilometers in length; one from Cardenas to Paso de Cardenas 
^pn the Grijalva River, 7 kilometers, and one (the Interfluvial) between 
San Juan Bautista and Boca Nueva, 6 kilometers in length. Other 
lines are projected, among them one to run from Cardenas to Barra 
de Dos Bocas, 80 kilometers, and another from Teapa to La Ermita. 
Wagon roads and mule paths lead to all the. principal centers, and there 
is a daily improving river transit system, 16 steamers being at present 
Bmployed in this means of communication. Efficient and extended 
telegraphic, mail, and telephonic service is availat^le. 

IndfiistTies. — The principal manufacturing industries are the develop- 
ment of sugar-cane products, yielding over $500,000 annually; the 
paanufacture of cigars and cigarettes, and the production of brick, 
Soap, candles, and chocolate. 

Divisions. — Politically the State is divided into 17 municipalities, 
subdivided into rural districts ( Vecindarios viircdes)^ as follows: 

Balancan, population, 3,583; Cardenas, 9,649; Comacalco, 11,208; 
Cunduacan, 10,727; Huimanguillo, 14,117; Jalapa, 9,400; Jalpa de 
Mendez, 5,870; Jonuta, 3,581; Macuspana, 15,286; Montecristo, 2,591, 



142 MEXICO. 

Nacajuca, 11,175; Paraiso, 5,478; Tacotalpa, 6,065; Teapa, 7,172; 
Tenosique, 3,984, their chief towns bearing the same names; also Fron- 
tera, population, 8,219, and San Juan Bautista, 31,729, which are the 
principal municipalities, the former having, as the capital, the port of 
Frontera and the latter, San Juan Bautista, which is also the State 
capital, containing 10,543 inhabitants. This city has tramway lines 
and many fine buildings, among them the palace of the legislative 
and executive powers, hospitals, a theater, and three churches. 

TAMAULIPAS. 

The State of Tamaulipas, population 218,948, whose capital city is 
Ciudad Victoria, 449 meters altitude, population 10,086, is a favored 
land, requiring only more general irrigation and capital to develop 
its immense wealth. 

Boundaries. — The State is bounded on the north by the Rio Bravo, 
which separates it from the State of Tpxas (U. S. A.), on the north- 
west by Coahuila, on the west by Nuevo Leon, on the south by San 
Luis Potosi, on the southeast by Veracruz, and on the east by the 
Gulf of Mexico. .The area of the State is 83,597 square kilometers. 

Situation. — ^Tamaulipas occupies one of the most beautiful sections 
of the Republic. Its coast line stretches from the bar of the Rio Bravo 
on the north to Tampico on the south, an extent of 400 kilometers, 
being formed by a succession of sand banks. This part of the State is 
almost uninhabited, as with the exception of two or three unimportant 
villages the centers of population are from 8 to 12 kilometers inland. 
There are several bars, the principal being the Jesus Maria, at the 
junction of the Madre Lake and the Gulf of Mexico, which is 800 
meters wide and 15 feet below the level of the water at high tide; the 
Tampico bar, at a depth of from 8 to 9 feet; the Soto de Marina bar 
and the bar of the Rio Bravo. The prevailing winds on the Gulf coast 
are from east, northeast, and southeast, but in winter "northers" are 
frequent and dangerous. 

Topograph]]. — The southern and central portions of the State are 
mountainous, the northern part containing extensive fertile plains, 
adapted for stock raising. The principal mountain ranges are the 
. Pamoranes, separated from the San Carlos range by 25 to 29 kilometers, 
and the Sierra Madre, which traverses the southwestern, western, and 
central portions, its principal peaks being Cerro Mocho and Cerro 
Shigue. The most remarkable vallej^, by reason of its beauty and 
fertility, is the Jaumave; others are the Rusias and the Santa Barbara 
de Ocampo. 

Hydrograjphy. — ^Tamaulipas has four large rivers which may be made 
navigable; also several small lakes and many small streams. The 
principal rivers are the Rio Bravo del Norte, the boundary line between 
Mexico and the United States, flowing from northwest to southeast, 



TAMAULIPAS. 148 

nd emptying into the Gulf of Mexico; the Conchas, also called the 
*resas; the Soto de la, Marina, navigable for 50 kilometers from its 
louth, and the Guayalejo, with their resiDective tributaries. The most 
inportant lakes are on the Gulf coast, and are the Laguna Madre, 210 
ilometers in length, containing several small islands; the Pesquerias, 
r Morales, 34 kilometers long, also containing small islands; the 
'ordo, San Andres, Chairel, Champayan, and Carpintero. Mineral 
prings abound. 

Climate.— The climate of Tamaulipas is generally hot and damp on 
he coast and in the vicinity of the lakes and rivers; temperate on the 
lopes of Sierra Madre and in the valleys, and dry and temperate in 
jie Lagrimas Valley. Rainfall is abundant in the sierras and moder- 
Ite in the valleys, and throughout the district watered by the Rio 
5ravo frost is frequent. The highest temperature experienced in the 
Jtate is from 32° to 33° C. (89° to 91° F.), and the lowest 15° to 24° 
b. (59° to 75° F.), the extremes being at noon and midnight. The 
Prevailing diseases are malarial fevers and affections of the respiratory 
ind digestive organs. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna and flora are rich and varied and pre- 
ent the same general features as mark that of other Mexican States. 

Eesources. — Agricultural products are, in the main, such as exist 
Isewhere in the Republic, cereals, leguminous plants, sugar cane, 
offee, tobacco, cotton, and maguey. Official figures for 1897 credit 
he State with 76 plantations, as follows: Cotton, 3; sugar cane, 28; 
ereals, 23; and 22 cattle ranches, the valuation of their production 
or 19*01-2 being given at about $1,150,000 for cereals; sugar-cane 
Iroducts, except rum, $75,000; rum, $1,000; cotton, $32,000; coffee, 

iio,ooo. 

I Mining. — Although the mineral wealth of the State is most abun- 
dant, it has not been developed to any extent. The minerals found 
re gold, silver, iron, and copper; also salt, marble, and asphalt; the 
umber of mining claims registered to December 31, 1902, amounted 
3 81, covering 938 hectares, and the total production of the State — 5 
lines in operation— was, during the same period, 585,000 kilos, valued 
1 160,000. 

Trade. — The commercial future of Tamaulipas is assured by reason 
f its excellent ports, its close proximity to the United States, its rail- 
oad lines, and natural wealth, its present disadvantages being limited 
3 a lack of population and adequate capital and to restricted means of 
oreign communication. Tamaulipas and Nuevo Leon are the princi- 
lal mercantile centers, the exports of the former town consisting of 
eef cattle, horses, ixtle, sarsaparilla, woods, fruits, hides and skins, 
ubber, and asphalt, while the imports are plows, machinery, arms, 
ardware, alimentary products, wines and liquors, cotton, silk, and 



144 MEXICO. 

woolen goods, etc. The frontier of this State bordering on the United 
States belongs to the Free Zone. 

Communications. — Three railroad lines traverse the State, the Mexi- 
can National, the Monterey and Gulf, and the Mexican Central. The 
first-mentioned line crosses it twice, first in the northwest, on the' 
International Line from Mexico to Nuevo Laredo, and again in the 
north, on the Matamoros, San Miguel and Monterey Line. The 
Monterey and Gulf Line crosses it diagonally from west to northeast 
on the Monterey, Tampico and Trevino road, and the Mexican Central 
on the line from Tampico to San Luis Potosi. The Central also has a 
line from Chicalote to Tampico. There are four lines of tramways 
in Matamoros, one in Nuevo Laredo, one in Victoria, one in Tampico, 
and another connecting this port with the capital. Concessions have 
also been granted for several more lines. Telephone, telegraph, and 
mail service is efiicient and extended. Several steamship lines touch! 
at Tampico, the principal being the Hamburg-American, the Harrison,i 
the West India and Pacific, and the New York and Cuba Steamship] 
Company. Wagon roads are numerous, but their condition leaves 
much to be desired. 

Industries. — Besides manufactured products directly derived from 
agriculture, such as sugar, rum, etc., the State also has beer, soap, 
and candle manufactories. 

Divisions. — Tamaulipas is divided into 4 districts, subdivided into 38 
municipalities. The districts and their principal cities are as follows: 

Distrito del Norte, population 68,727; its chief town is Matamoros, 
population 8,347, 293 kilometers from Victoria, the State capital. 
This is a fluvial port, on the Rio Bravo, 50 kilometers from the Gulf 
coast, and carries on a large trade. It is a fine city, possessing manyj 
public buildings, tramway lines, a chamber of coimnerce, etc. Next' 
in importance comes Nuevo Laredo, population 16,600, on the Rio 
Bravo, opposite the American town of the same name (Texas), with 
which it is connected by an iron bridge. It has a frontier customs 
port, a chamber of commerce, and is the second customs district of 
the Republic. It is distant 547 kilometers from the City of Mexico 
by rail and 320 from Matamoros. Other Important towns are Gue- 
rrero and Mier, also frontier customs ports, and Reynosa and Camejo. 
Foreign trade through the Laredo custom-house, according to invoice 
valuation, is officially estimated for 1901-2 at $7,145,171 for imports 
and $6,397,761 for exports. 

Distrito del Centro, population 55,073, whose chief town, Ciudad 
Victoria, is also the State capital, containing 10,086 inhabitants, and 
distant 1,367 kilometers from th.^ City of Mexico by rail; 650 from 
Nuevo Laredo, and 233 from Tampico. The city possesses a chamber 
of commerce, many fine public buildings, tramwaj^s, and other modern 
improvements, and as it lies on the line of the Monterey and Gulf 



TLAXCALA, 145 

Railway, it has a large trade. Other important towns are Soto de la 
Marina, a fluvial port, 63 kilometers from the Gulf, the river from 
which it takes its name being navigable for more than 141 kilometers, 
Villagran, San Carlos, and Hidalgo. 

Distritodel Sur, population 42,248; its chief town, Tampico, popu- 
lation 16,313, a Gulf port, is steadily growing in importance. The 
foreign trade of Tampico, according to the ' ' Boletin de Estadistica 
Fiscal" for 1901-2, amounted during that year to $10,279,068 for im- 
ports and $46,900,360 for exports, according to invoice valuation. Its 
custom-house receipts up to the end of November, 1899, were larger 
by a considerable sum than those of the great port of Veracruz. The 
Panuco River, which flows b}^ it, waters one of the most valuable sec- 
tions of the territory of the Republic, where agriculture and stock 
raising offer inducements not equaled elsewhere in the country. The 
navigation business on this river is constantly increasing. 

The city possesses several flue public buildings, tramways, a cham- 
ber of commerce, and all modern conveniences, and is the terminus of 
two railroad lines, the Montere}" and Gulf and the Mexican Central. 
Other important towns are Altamira, Aldama, Nuevo Morelos, and 
Quintero. 

Cuarto Distrito, population 52,900; its chief town is Tula, popula- 
tion 6,935, 160 kilometers from Victoria, and one of the principal 
commercial centers of the State. Other towns are Ocampo, Jaumave, 
Palmillas, and Bustamante. 

TLAXCALA. 

The State of Tlaxcala, population 172,315, with a capital city bear- 
ing the same name, 2,252 meters above the sea, is the smallest State 
in the Republic. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the State of Puebla on the north, 
I east, and south, and Mexico on the west, its area measuring 4,132 
square kilometers. 

To])ography . — Tlaxcala is situated within the cold region of Mex- 
ico, and its valleys, though sandy, are fertile. It forms a portion of 
the Central Plateau, being situated over 2,000 meters above the level 
of the Gulf. The eastern slopes of the Popocatepetl range rise in the 
west of the State, while toward the south rises the Malinche range 
with its snow-capped peaks, Malintzi, 4,107 meters in height, and the 
Xaltonale, 3,848 meters high. The highest points in the eastern por- 
tion of the State are Penon del Rosario, 3,359 meters, and Huitintepec, 
3,080 meters high. Other elevated points throughout the State range 
from 2,000 to 2,700 meters in height. The principal valleys are the 
Huamantla, the Pie Grande, Apam, and Zahuapam. 

IlydTograjyliy. — The principal rivers are the Zahuapam, emptying 
into the Atoyac, and the Atoyac and its few tributatries. There are 
509a— 04 10 



146 MEXICO. 

also several permanent streams, among them the Negros, Tenexac,, 
Achiachiapam, Totolac, and Tequixquiatl. The principal lakes are the 
Acuitlapilco, 105 hectares in extent, Rosario, 252 hectares, Xonecuila,, 
and Santa Clara. 

Climate. — The climate of the State is cold and healthful, as its mean 
altitude is between 2,000 and 3,000 meters above sea level. Rainfall 
is moderate throughout the year and frost is frequent during the win- 
ter. The prevailing diseases are t3qDhus and malarial fevers and affec- 
tions of the respiratory organs. 

Fauna andjlora. — The fauna and flora embrace the usual species 
indigenous to the Mexican States. 

Resources. — Tlaxcala is essentially an agricultural State, cereals and 
pulque forming the chief products. Official figures for 1897 credit it 
with 154 plantations, devoted in the following proportions to various 
cultures: Cereals, 100, and maguey, 48; and 6 cattle ranches. The val 
nations for 1901-2 are officially quoted as follows: Cereals, 12,442,227; 
pulque, $2,136,746. 

Mining. — The State has no importance as a mining district, though 
gold, silver, lead, cinnabar, and a small proportion of coal have been 
found. 

Trade. — The value of the annual commerce is estimated at about 
$8,000,000, consisting chiefly in the export of pulque to the City cf 
Mexico and to Puebla and adjacent States; of cereals and other agri- 
cultural products, paper and cotton from the native mills, flour, etc., 
the principal imports being alimentary products, hardware, furniture, 
machinery, and agricultural implements. 

Communications. — Three railroads cross the State; the Mexican, 
running on the Mexico and Veracruz line and on the Apizaco and 
Puebla branch; the Interoceanic, from Acapulco and Veracruz to 
Mexico, and the Santa Ana and Tlaxcala road, from Chiantempan to 
Tlaxcala. There are several wagon roads in good condition leading 
to the adjacent States. Postal, telegraph, and telephone service is good 
and extended. 

Industries. — The principal manufacturing establishments of the 
State are its cotton and print mills, a glass factory, and several 
foundries. 

Divisions. — The political divisions of the State are 6 districts, sub- 
divided into municipalities. The districts are: 

Ocampo, population 20,279; its chief town is Calpulalpam San 
Antonio, on the Interoceanic Railroad, 60 kilometers from the State 
capital. 

Morelos, population 18,662; its chief town is Tlaxco San Augustin, 
42 kilometers from Tlaxcala. 

Juarez, population 36,056; its chief town, Huamantla, is 38 kilo- 
meters from Tlaxcala. 



VERACEUZ. 



147 



Zaragoza, population 38,650; its chief town, Zacateco Santa Infe, 
12 kilometers from Tlaxcala. 

HldJ^o, population 39,213, whose chief town, Tlaxcala, the State 
capilal, with 3,000 inhabitants, is also the most important town in the 
State, possessing many fine buildings, and having rail connection with 
the City of Mexico. 

Cuauhtemoc, population 19,455; its chief town is Barron-Escandon, 
or Apizaco, situated on the line of the Mexican Railroad, 26 kilometers 
east of Tlaxcala. 

VERACRUZ. 

The State of Veracruz-Llave, population 981,030, whose capital city 
is Xalapa, or Jalapa, 1,429 meters altitude, population 20,388, is con- 
sidered one of the richest and most beautiful regions of the globe. Its 
area is 75,863 square kilometers. 

Boundaries. — The boundaries are Tamaulipas on the north, San 
Luis Potosi, Hidalgo, and Puebla on the west, Oaxaca on the south, 
and the Gulf of Mexico on the east. 

Toijograjjhy . — Veracruz occupies a narrow strip of land rising grad- 
uall}^ from the coast line to the crest of the Sierra Madre Mountains. 
Almost the entire section is mountainous, the Sierra Madre range 
occupying the western central portion, running from north to south, 
and rising to the height of 4,089 meters above sea level in the peak of 
Nanchampapetl, or Cofre de Perote. To the south is the majestic 
snow-capped volcano Citatepetl, or Orizaba, 5,295 meters above the 
level of the sea. Other ranges are the Maltrata, Alcucingo, Jalacingo, 
Oxocupan, and Zongolica. The eastern litoral, bordering on the Gulf 
of Mexico, is 460 kilometers in extent, stretching from the Tampico 
Bar to Tonala. The northern section of this coast line is called the 
Windward coast, while to the south, from Veracruz to the bar of 
Tonala, is the Leeward coast. The shore line is broken by numerous 
bars, shoals, islands, capes, etc. 

Hydrography. — Hydrographically the State may be divided into two 
basins, the northern extending from the Panuco River to the Rio 
Blanco, and the southern from the latter stream southward to Tauco- 
chapa. The rivers susceptible of navigable development are the 
Panuco, Tuxpam, Vinasco, Yautepec, Tecolutla, Nautla, Blanco, and 
Papaloapam, all having several tributaries and forming the hydro- 
graphic basins above mentioned. There are also several lakes, among 
them the Catemaco, Ostion, Mexcalapa, Tortuguero, and Tecunanapa. 

Climate. — The climate is very variable, being hot and unhealthy in 
the south and on the coast, yellow fever, dysentery, and black vomit 
prevailing; temperate and, at times, humid at altitudes of more than 
1,000 meters; temperate and healthful on the mountain slopes; cold at 
an altitude of 1,500 meters, and hot in the north. 



148 MEXICO. 

Fawia and flora. — The fauna and liora of the State are both rich and 
varied, embracing the species usual in other portions of the Republic. 

Resources. — The agricultural products include all such as are indige- 
nous elsewhere to Mexico. Official figures give the State of Veracruz 
751 plantations in 1897, divided as follows: Cotton, 23; coffee, 98; 
sugarcane, 106; cereals, 189; fruits, 3; tobacco, 45; woods, 8; and 279 
cattle ranches. 

There is no available data for the production of Veracruz for 1901-2. 
The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1900-1901 credits the State with the 
following figures: Cereals, $7,094,673; sugar-cane products, rum ex- 
cepted, 41,137,598 kilograms, at $3,858,284; rum, 149,209 hectoliters, 
at $2,371,160; maguey products, $81,400; textile fibers (cotton and 
ixtle), $223,330; dyewoods, $124,000; tanning barks, $15,000; coffee, 
17,765,347 kilos, at $5,880,656; tobacco, 5,394,946 kilos, at $1,740,234; 
vanilla, 124,000 kilos, at $1,350,000. Stock raising is also one of the 
sources of wealth and may be estimated at a value of from 24,000,000 
to 25,000,000 pesos. 

Mining. — Many rich mines are included within the borders of the 
State, the principal yielding gold, silver, lead, iron, mercury, copper, 
coal, petroleum, asphalt, and marble, and also such precious stones as 
opals, agate, lapis lazuli, and amethj^sts. The number of mining claims 
registered during the calendar year 1901 was 46, covering 678 hectares, 
while the total output of the 3 mines in operation for the same period 
was $45,000. 

Trade. — Veracruz is one of the most important commercial sections 
of the Republic, its trade having outlets not only throughout Mexico 
but also to the United States, Europe, the West Indies, and South 
America. The chief ports are Veracruz, Tuxpam, and Coatzacoalcos, 
devoted to foreign commerce, while the other gulf ports are open to 
coastwise trade only. Exports from Veracruz cover almost all the 
articles that Mexico sends abroad, while the imports are of an equally 
general character. The total trade of the port, both foreign and 
domestic, amounts to about $100,000,000 per annum. 

The foreign trade of these three ports is officially given as follows, 
and the "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal," for 1901-2: 



Veracruz 

Tiixpam 

Coatzacoalcos. 



Imports. 



S20, 986, 963 

57,381 

475, 923 



Exports. 



S26, 497, 693 
281, 858 
495, 741 



Communications. — The railways include the Mexican line from Vera- 
cruz to Mexico, the Interocanic, the Veracruz and Alvarado, the Cen- 
tral in the north, the Cordoba and Tuxtepec, and two short lines, one 
from Veracruz to Antigua and one from Jalapa to Coatepec. Many 



I 



VKRArnuz. 



149 



fine highways also connect with the principal towns of the adjacent 
States. Maritime communication is effected b}^ means of the several 
steamship lines touching at Veracruz and other ports, viz: The French 
Transatlantic, the Hamburg- American, the Koyal Mail, the Harri- 
son, the West India and Pacific, the Morgan, and the Ward lines. 
Coastwise steamers also ply between home ports. A cable lines runs 
from Coatzacoalcos to Galveston, with stations at Veracruz and Tam- 
pico. Telegraph, telephone, and postal communication is efficient and 
extensive. 

Industries. — In addition to the industries directly connected with 
agriculture, mining, and stock raising, the State has many manufac- 
turing interests, such as cotton, woolen, saw, and paper mills, and 
establishments for the manufacture of chocolate, wax matches, soap, 
candles, and cigars, and several foundries. 

Divisions. — The State is divided into eighteen cantons, subdivided 
into municipalities. The cantons may be classed in two groups of 
nine each, called, according to their geographical position, maritime 
and interior respectively; they are subdivided as follows: 

Northern maritime, embracing Ozuluama, population 38,990; Tux- 
pam, 58,282; and. Papantla, 50,756, their chief towns bearing the same 
names, respectively, Tuxpam being a seaport open to foreign trade. 

Central maritime, embracing Misantla, population 21,250, whose 
chief town bears the same name; Jalapa, 82,669, the chief town of 
which is Jalapa, also the capital of the State, with 20,388 inhabitants, 
situated 310 kilometers from the City of Mexico and 118 from Vera- 
cruz, being the principal town of the State, the center of a fine agri- 
cultural district, and possessing line public buildings; and Veracruz, 
110,172, whose chief town bears the same name and is the first commer- 
cial port of the*Republic, 421 kilometers from the City of Mexico. 
The chief public buildings of the city of Veracruz are the municipal 
palace, the People's Librarj^ (containing over 20,000 volumes), a theater, 
several churches, and the Artillery School. This city is in constant 
commnnication with the principal ports of the United States, Europe, 
and the West Indies by means of a submarine cable and steamship 
lines. It is the seat of the Chamber of Commerce, has three banks, a 
consular corps, and is equipped with two light-houses, street railways, 
and other modern conveniences. Other towns in the canton are Alva- 
rado and Tlacotalpam, the latter a fluvial port on the Papaloapam 
River. 

Southern maritime, embracing Los Tuxtlas, population 43,824, the 
chief towns being San Andres de Tuxtla and Santiago de Tuxtla; 
Acajaicam, population 38,164, its chief town bearing the same name; 
and Minatitlan, population 34,490, with its chief town bearing the 
same name, a railway station. Coatzacoalcos, a gulf port and the 
third town in the State, is also in the canton of Minantitlan. 



150 - MEXICO. 

Northern interior, embracing the cantons of Tantoyuca, population 
56,179, and Chicontepec, 66,517, their chief towns bearing the names 
of the cantons. 

Central interior, embracing Jahicingo, population 67,016; Coatepec, 
60,451; Huatusco, 35,531; Cordoba, 79,130; Orizaba, 85,915; and 
Zongolica, 29,740; their chief towns bearing the same names as their 
respective cantons. Orizaba, population 32,894, deserves especial 
mention as the second city in the State. 

Southern interior, comprising the canton of Cosamaloapam, 32,371, 
with its chief town bearing the same name. 

YUCATAN. 

The State of Yucatan, population 314,087, whose capital city is 
Merida, about 8 meters altitude, population 43,630, is the greatest 
henequen-producing region of the world. 

Botmdaries. — It is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on 
the east by the Caribbean Sea, on the south by*British Honduras and 
Guatemala, and on the west b}^ the State of Campeche. It comprises 
an area of 91,201 square kilometers. 

Situation. — The peninsula of Yucatan is an immense plain, which, 
starting from the coast line, rises gradualh^ toward the interior to a 
height of from 40 to 60 meters. In the northwest, where Merida is 
located, the soil is of a calcareous, dr}^, and rockj^ formation, and until 
the culture of henequen transformed it into one of the richest regions of 
Mexico it was proverbially sterile. The fertility of the land increases 
toward the northeast, while the southeast section offers great natural 
opportunities for wealth, abounding as it does in virgin forests filled 
with valuable dye and cabinet woods and in stretches of land suitable for 
the culture of all the vegetable species. This territory is, however, 
occupied by rebel Indian tribes and has not been accessible to progress 
and civilization for more than fifty years. '^ 

Topogra/phy. — There are two small mountain ranges in the State; 
the one, called Puc in the Maya tongue, is so uniform in its extent 
and at so slight an elevation above sea level that it might more properly 
be termed an elongated hill. This range, which starts near the partido 
of Macanu, extends toward the east, thence in a southerly direction, 
after which it turns SSE. for a distance of 120 kilometers, gradually 
decreasing in altitude until, near Peto, it merges into a savanna or 
plain. The other range is formed by a series of hills starting near the 
coast. Several islands lie along the coast, viz, Pajaros and Perez to 
the north; southwest of these is Arenas, while near Cape Catoche are 
Halbo}^, Contoy, and Blanca, and off the western coast are Mujeres, 

«The territory of Quintana Roo, created by act of December 14, 1900, occupies 
the main portion of these lands. Several important concessions have been granted 
for the colonization and development of the new territory. 



YUCATAN. 151 

Cancum, and Cozumel. Small caj^s, which are dangerous for naviga- 
tors, abound in the vicinity of Cape Catoche, Mujeres Island, how- 
ever, possesses a fine harbor, which with the port of Progreso (open 
to foreign traffic) and the ports of Cozumel, Halboy, Celestun, Telchal, 
Chicxalub, Chuburna, Santa Clara, Kxilam, Bravo, and Sisal are the 
principal coast towns. Sisal is at present almost deserted, though it 
was formerly the chief port of the State. The coasts of Yucatan, 990 
kilometers in length, are very low, and, judging from the shells found 
among the rocks and in deep diggings, the entire peninsula was at one 
time covered b}^ the sea. 

Hydrography. — There are no rivers, and all drinking water is 
obtained from natural wells sunk to a greater or less depth. The 
so-called Lagartos Kiver is in reality a shallow arm of the sea, and is 
remarkable for the fact that at a distance of about 400 meters inland 
pools of fresh water spring up amid the salt. These are called " Bocas 
de Conil," and are supposed by Humboldt to be due to immense hydro- 
static pressure from the interior of the earth. Such springs are also 
found on the Windward coast. Throughout the State are many 
springs called locally mrtenejas^ aguadas^ and cenotes^ the first being 
deposits of rain water among the rocks; the second large reservoir- 
like pools, some of them having been constructed by the ancient inhab- 
itants, and the third beautiful caverns where water is found in immense 
quantities. The only lake is the Chichankanab, SE. of Merida, about 
32 kilometers distant from Peto, the peculiar characteristic of which 
is that the waters, though beautifully clear, are very bitter, and that 
the bed is composed of <;rystals closely resembling Epsom salts. 

Climate. — The climate is generally pleasant, the maximum tem- 
perature in summer being 32° C. (89° F.) and the minimum in winter 
19° C. (66° F.), the summer heat being tempered by cool breezes. 
Malaria and other fevers are the prevailing diseases. 

Fauna and flora. — The fauna of the State embraces almost all the 
species found throughout the Republic, while the flora is no less rich 
and varied. 

Resources. — The principal sources of agricultural wealth consists in 
the cultivation of henequen, but in the northwest section there are a 
few sugar-cane plantations, while in the northeast or forest region dye 
and cabinet woods, chicle gum, tobacco, and vanilla are grown. Mex- 
ican official figures for 1897 give Yucatan 826 plantations, divided as 
follows: Sugar cane, 94; cereals, 159; henequen, 348; and 225 cattle 
ranches. The principal products for 1901-2 are estimated as fol- 
lows: Corn, to the value of $1,209,747; sugar cane products, direct, 
3,050,000 kilos, at $245,000; rum, $270,000; henequen, 51,868,900 
kilos, valued at $16,192,029; dye woods, 3,000,000 kilos, $100,000; 
chicle gum, $48,000; sugar cane, $345,000. In 1898 the extent of 
cultivated lands throughout the State was given officially as 54,564 



152 MEXICO. 

hectares, of which 21,835 were devoted to corn. Stock raising, 
though carried on to a considerable extent, does not meet the require- 
ments of home consumption, large quantities of cattle being imported 
from the adjacent States, especially from Tampico. The "Boletin de 
Estadistica," an official publication issued by the State, estimates the 
yearly importation of beef cattle at 7,000 head. 

Mines. — There are no mines in the State; it, however, possesses 
several kinds of building stones, cky, gypsum, etc. 

Trade. — The foreign trade of Yucatan is carried on almost exclu- 
sively through the port of Progreso. During 1901-2 the imports were 
valued at 15,017,566 and the exports at $31,931,877. The exports of 
henequen during the calendar year 1903, from Yucatan through the 
ports of Progreso and Campeche, consisted of 611,939 bales, valued at 
$36,040,032. 32. « The distribution of the bales was as follows: 

United States 596, 676 

Cuba - - 8, 066 

England - 4, 286 

Canada - - 1, 200 

France, 8pain, ( Jerraanv, J:!elginiii 1, 711 

Total ° - - 611, 939 

The exports of henequen during the last live years were: 

1899 - 445, 978 

1900 . . _ ' - - - 499, 626 

1901 517, 519 

1902 - - . - - 528, 246 

1903 - 61 1 , 939 

There has been a steadj'^ increase in the production of henequen, and 
the yield for the year 1904 is estimated to exceed that of 1903. 

Communications. — The railwaj^s of the State are: The Merida and 
Progreso, 36 kilometers; the Izamel, QQ kilometers; the Merida and Val- 
ladolid, with a branch to Progreso, 78 kilometers; the Merida and Peto, 
127 kilometers, running to San Antonio, and the Peninsular road from 
Merida to Campeche, 173 kilometers. In May, 1899, a company was 
organized under the name of the Yucatan Southeastern Company, with 
a capital of $1,000,000, Mexican silver, to open up vast uncultivated 
regions in the old Maya peninsula. There are also 36 kilometers of 
street railways in Merida, and several wagon roads. Maritime com- 
munication is carried on by means of the New York and Cuba Mail 
Steamship Company, the Imperial German Mail, the Harrison Line, 
the West India and Pacific Steamship Company, the Spanish Trans- 
atlantic Line, two Mexican lines, the Prince Line, the Johnston Line, 
and others. Telegraphic, telephonic, and mail services are efficient and 
extended. 

a "Mexican Herald," January 21, 1904. 



ZACATECAS. 153 

Industries. — The principal industry of the State is the manufacture 
of henequen ropes and bags. An American firm has established a 
[factorj for the preparation of vegetable pepsin from the papaya 
' {carica jyajxiya). ^ 

Divisions. — Politically, Yucatan is divided into 17 partidos, subdi- 
vided into municipalities. The partidos are: 

Acanceh, population, 22,fi77; its chief town, oearing the same name, 
is situated 25 kilometers by rail from Merida, the State capital. 

Espita, population 10,489, with a chief town bearing the same name. 

Hunucma, population 18,656, with a chief town bearing the same 
name, is 36 kilometers by rail from Merida, the port of Sisal being 
also one of its towns. 

Las Islas, population 3,141, chief town, Isla de Mujeres, a seaport. 
The two other ports of the partido are Cozumel and Halboy. 

Izamal, population 21,358; chief town, bearing the same name, is 
66 kilometers from Merida. 

Maxcanu, population 19,673; its chief town of the same name is 58 
kilometers from Merida, the port of the partido being Celestun. 

Merida, population 60,156, whose chief town, Merida, is also the 
capital of the State, containing 43,630 inhabitants, according to the 
official census of- 1900. This is one of the richest cities of the Repub- 
licy possessing handsome buildings, street-railway lines, a board of 
trade, three banks, and all modern conveniences. It is also the rail- 
wa}^ center of the State. 

Motul, population 18,756, with a chief town of the same name, 46 
kilometers from Merida, the port of the partido being Telchac. 

Peto, population 10,636, with a chief town of the same name, is a 
railwa}^ terminus. 

Progreso, population 8,832, whose chief town, Progreso, population 
5,126, is 36 kilometers from Merida. It is the j)rincipal port of the 
State and the second in the Republic for its import trade, the vessels 
calling there numbering yearh^ from 500 to 550, of which 350 are 
steamers. The port is not safe, especially in bad weather. Other 
ports in the partido are Chicxulub and Chuburna. 

The other partidos are Sotuta, population 9,855, Tekax, 19,757; 
Temax, 17,058; Ticul, 25,057; Tixkokob, 14,072; Tizimin, 9,174; and 
Valladolid, 24,740, the chief towns of which bear the same names as 
their respective partidos. 

ZAGATEOAS. 

The State of Zacatecas, population 462,190, the capital city of which 
is Zacatecas, 2,496 meters altitude, with 32,856 inhabitants, is one of 
the important interior States of the Republic. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are: Coahuila on the north, San Luis 
Potosi on the east, Jalisco and Aguascalientes on the south, and 
Durango on the west, its total area being 63,386 square kilometers. 



154 MEXICO. 

Situation. — Situated on the high Central Plateau of the Republic, 
this State is one of the most mountainous regions of the country, and 
is formed b}^ the extension of the Sierra Madre range. Its mean alti- 
tude is 2,230 meters, the highest point being 3,090 meters and the 
lowest 1,573. 

To2?ography. — Owing to topographical conditions, agriculture does 
not prosper throughout its extent. The principal mountains are 
Mazapil, Tecolotes, Novillos, Calabozal, Pichihualtepec, Pitiquitas, 
San Pedro, Tetillas, Mesquital, Meliila, Chacuaco, Chapultepec, and 
the peak of Teyra. 

Hydrography. — The two principal rivers are the Juchipila and the 
Nieves, respectively 230 and 225 kilometers in length. Other rivers 
are the tributaries of those above mentioned and the Jerez, the Tlalte- 
nango, and Teul. There are no large lakes, but pools of clear, cold 
water and mineral springs abound. 

Climate. — The State possesses three climatic regions, the first 
between 1,550 and 2,000 meters above sea level, the second from 
2,000 to 2,400 meters, and the third from 2,400 to 3,000 meters, the 
thermometer ranging from 11° to 21° C. (about 52° to 70° F.), accord- 
ing to the altitude. Rainfall is abundant throughout the State, and 
the winds from the west are cold, while those from the southeast are 
warm. Fevers and pneumonia are the most common ailments. 

Fauna and flora. — Although the fauna of the State is not known 
very thoroughly, it ma}^ be said to embrace such species as are common 
to other parts of the Republic, the same being applicable to the flora. 

Besources. — As has been stated, Zacatecas can not be classed among 
the important agricultural sections of Mexico. Cereals are, however, 
its best crop, sugar catie and maguey following. 

Mexican official statistics for 1897 give the following data in regard 
to the State: Number of plantations 189, divided as follows: Coffee, 4; 
cereals, 80; mague}^, 15; and 90 cattle ranches. The principal agri- 
cultural products for 1901-2 are officially giv^en as follows: Cereals, 
$8,142,146; sugar-cane products, rum excepted, 3,049,300 kilos, at 
$245,000; rum, $6,600; mescal, $122,000; other maguey products, 
$20,000; ixtle, $6,300; grape wine, $3,200; tanning barks, $10,000; 
tobacco, $8,000. 

Stock raising forms one of the chief sources of wealth, the Zaca- 
tecas stock being renowned throughout the Republic, the sheep espe- 
cially being considered unequaled, both on account of ilesh and wool. 
Foreign stock has been imported to improve the native breeds, and 
the experiment has been eminently successful. 

Mining. — From a mineral standpoint this State is one of the richest 
regions in the world, as it contains the Sierra de Zacatecas, which has 
produced fabulous quanLities of silver. Other minerals found in 



ZACATECAS. 155 

greater or less quantities are gold, mercury, iron, copper, zinc, lead, 
icoal, bismuth, and salt. During the year ending on December 31, 
1902, official statistics give the number of mining claims registered as 
1,485, covering 16,293 hectares. The number of mines in operation 
during the same period were 102, the total output being officiall}^ esti- 
mated at 176,515,185 kilos, valued at $5,221,779. 

Trade. — Commercially Zacatecas is one of the most important cen- 
ters of the Republic, its trade being estimated at about $11,000,000 
per annum, as follows: Imports, $15,000,000; exports, $19,000,000; 

docal trade, $7,000,000. The United States, Europe, and the City of 
Mexico receive the mineral exports, the former taking ores and the 
two latter silver bullion and coin. Other products, consisting chiefly 
of cereals, live stock, tallow, horns, bones, mescal, etc., go to the 

'adjacent States. Imports from Mexico Cit}^, the United States, and 

ji Europe comprise groceries, ready-made clothing, hardware, machinerj'^, 

I agricultural implements, arms, and ammunition. 

I Commiinicatio7is. — The Mexican Central and the Mexican National 
railroads traverse the State, the former from southeast to northwest 
on the International line from Mexico to Ciudad Juarez and on the 
Aguascalientes and Tampico line, and the latter on the Zacatecas and 
San Luis Potosi road. There is also a narrow-gauge road connecting 
Guadalupe and Zacatecas, as well as several wagon roads. Telegraphic, 
telephonic, and postal services are efficient and extended. 

Industries. — The principal manufacturing industries are the produc- 
tion of sugar, rum, and wine, the reduction of ores, and the manufac- 
ture of cotton, woolen, and knit goods, carriages, candles, soap, and 
chocolate. 

Divisions.- — The State is divided into 12 partidos, subdivided into 
municipalities. The partidos and their principal cities are: 

Mazapil, population 23,052, an important mining section, the chief 
town of which bears the same name and is situated 336 kilometers 
from Zacatecas. 

Fresnillo, population 53,132, the second agricultural and stock- 
breeding partido of the State; its chief town, Fresnillo, population 
6,309, lies on the Central Railroad, 59 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Zacatecas, population 74,591, one of the richest silver-bearing dis- 
tricts in the world, its chief town bearing the same name, being also 
the State capital, with 32,856 inhabitants. It is also one of th^ prin- 
cipal cities of the Republic, and is situated on the line of the Cen- 
tral Railwa}^ 706 kilometers from the City of Mexico, 1,130 from the 
port of Veracruz, 121 from Aguascalientes, and 787 from the port of 
Tampico. The city is equipped with all modern conveniences and 
possesses many fine public buildings, among others the municipal 
palace; the mint, which according to official statistics coined in 1901-2 



156 MEXICO. 

silver to the amount of $7,281,000; the Institute of Sciences, the 
cathedral, and many churches, hospitals, schools, etc. According to 
old statistics the partido of Zacatecas yielded in the period from 1518 
to 1832 minerals to the value of 667,318,290 pesos. Guadalupe, pop- 
ulation 8,781, is the second town in the partido, being of considerable 
commercial importance. 

Ojocaliente, population 13,830, the chief town of which, bearing the 
same name, is 31 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Pinos, population 15,859; its chief town, situated 125 kilometers 
from Zacatecas, bears the same name, and is rich in minerals and 
produces large quantities of maguey mescal. 

Villanueva, population 10,616, is an agricultural region, the chief 
town of which, bearing the same name, is 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Juchipila, population 21,378, also an agricultural section, with a 
chief town of the same name, is 251 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Nochixtlan, population 20,562, with a chief town of the same name, 
is 216 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Tlaltenango, or Sanchez Roman, population 39,013, is a mining 
region; its chief town, bearing the same name, is 202 kilometers from 
Zacatecas. 

Jerez, population 51,000, is the first agricultural section in the State, 
its principal town, of the same name (called also Ciudad Garcia), is 
situated 50 kilometers from Zacatecas. 

Sombrerete, population 17,707, is a fine mining region, the chief 
town of the same name being situated 88 kilometers from Zacatecas, 
the town of Chalchihuites ranking next in importance. 

Nieves, population 31,118, the principal towns of which are Nieves, 
185 kilometers from Zacatecas, and Rio Grande, or Gonzalez Ortega, at 
a distance of 161 kilometers. 

TERRITORIES. 

BAJA CALIFORNIA. 

The Territory of Baja (Lower) California, population 47,621, is a 
peninsula extending from north to south into the Pacific Ocean for a 
distance of over 1,500 kilometers. 

Boundaries. — Its boundaries are the State of California (United 
States) on the north, the Gulf of California on the east, and th<' 
Pacific Ocean on the west and south. The total area is 151,109 square 
kilometers. 

Situation. — The coast line measures 3,000 kilometers, bordered by a 
number of islands. The principal bays where the ports open to foreign 
commerce are found are La Paz and Santa Rosalia on the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia, and Ensenada Bay on the Pacific. Others w^orthy of note are 
San Quintin, San Sebastian, Vizcaino, San Pablo, San Roque, Asuncion, 



BAJA CALIFORNIA. 



157 



ag-dalena, Ballenas, Fequena, and Almejas on the western or Pacitic 
ide, while on the gulf or eastern coast are San Felipe, San Luis, Reme- 
ios, Angeles, Animas, San Carlos, Concepcion, San Nicolas, San 
'3asilio, Ventana, Muertos, Palmas, and San Jose. The large islands 
ilso have their ports and bays, as follows: Angel de la Guarda Island 
[ontains the port of Refugio and Humbug Bay; Carmen Island, ports 
Lobos and Balandra and the bays of Salinas and Gavilanes, and San 
i ose Island the Bay of Amortajada, and Cedros Island the Bay del Sur. 
i)ther islands on the Pacific coast belonging to the Republic are Gua- 
llalupe, which is extremely fertile and rich in cattle; Todos Santos, San 
fdartin, San Geronimo, Sacramento (a reef), Elide, Cedros, Natividad, 
^an Benito, Asuncion, and the large islands of Magdalena, Santa Mar- 
>-arita, and Crecientes. On the gulf side are Montague and Gore at 
the mouth of the Colorado River, Gonzaga (a reef), the San Luis 
Islands, the large island of Angel de la Guarda, the Mejia Islands, San 
Marcos, Carmen, Santa Catalina, San Jose, Espiritu Santo, Cerralbo, 
Ind several others. 

Topogra2)hy. — The peninsula is traversed from end to end by a 
sordillera running nearer the eastern than the western coast, the 
lescent on the gulf side being extremely abrupt, while on the Pacific 
ide the coast is reached by a succession of low hills. This mountain 
|;hain possesses remarkable topographical and geological features, in 
lome places granite, occasionally metalliferous, forming the central 
3ortions. Another difi'erential characteristic between the mountains 
)f Upper and Lower California are the rocks of volcanic origin which 
)ccupy a large extent of the territory, giving the country a marked 
lispect of aridity and desolation, this being especially noticeable in the 
Northern part of the territory, which is occupied by the Cupapas chain 
|pd the Volcano de las Virgenes. The highest granite peak is the 
Oerro del Gigante, near Loreto, on the gulf coast, the altitude of which 
s estimated at 1,300 meters above sea level. 

i Hydrograpliy. — With the exception of the Colorado River in the 
[lorth and several small streams in the center and south, among which 
jire the Muleje, Todos Santos, San Jose, Miraflores, and Purisima, the 
peninsula is lacking in means of irrigation. 

Resources. — Lack of irrigation and scarcity of rainfall are the causes 
of the general sterility of the soil and the consequent limitations of 
igricultural development. Notwithstanding this, however, there are 
in some portions of the peninsula spontaneous productions of the soil 
vvhich yield large profits. Principal among these is the archil, or 
Spanish moss, used for dyeing purposes, which grows profusely 
throughout an extensive belt between 23° 23' and 26° 24' north lati- 
tude on the west coast. It is not found on the eastern or gulf side, 
but its growth begins again, though to a limited extent, on the coasts 



158 MEXICO. 

of Sonora and Sinaloa. Henequ^n is found in the central regions of 
the peninsula and hemp in the north near the Colorado River. 

Flora and fauna. — Flowers and ornamental shrubs of all the trop- 
ical species grow wild, while cabinet and dye woods are also found. 
Like the flora, the fauna of the territory is limited, the species 
known being similar to those of the northern Mexican States. On the 
western coast the sperm or oil whale and otter are found. The Gulf 
of California abounds in shells and pearls from Mulege to Cape Porfia, 
while seals are found in the waters of Tiburon, Angel de la Guarda, 
and San Lorenzo islands. 

Climate. — The cb'mate is hot and dr}^ in the north and temperate 
toward the south. 

Agricidture. — Sugar cane and tropical fruits are successfull}" culti- 
vated in the humid sections, and the grape also receives some atten- 
tion. The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1897 estimated the number of 
plantations in the Territory as 30, divided as follows, according to the 
principal product: Sugar cane, 10; cereals, 13; maguey (mescal) 1; 
and cattle ranges, 6. For 1901-2 the agricultural production of the 
Territory is, according to official statistics, as follows: Cereals, $75,624; 
sugar-cane products, except rum, 1,641,000 kilos, at $180,000; mescal, 
$8,350; hemp, $3,000; grape wine, $11,645; tanning barks, $18,000; 
mesquite wood, $251,340; sugar cane, $30,000. 

Mining. — The principal mineral products of the peninsula are gold, 
silver, copper, lead, gypsum, and coal. Phj^sically the Territory 
might be divided into three sections — the northern, or gold-bearing; 
the southern, or argentiferous, and the central, or copper region. Sil- 
ver and other minerals are found here. The former name of the Ter- 
ritory was Real de San Antonio. West of this, in the same cordillera, 
is Mineral del Triunfo, the site of very important reduction works. 
In the municipalities of La Paz, San Antonio, Santiago, Mulege, Co-* 
mandu, and Ensenada gold is found; silver in San Antonio, La Paz 
Todos Santos, Santiago, San Jose del Cabo, Mulege, and Comandi 
and copper is most abundant in La Paz, San Antonio, Todos Santo| 
Mulege, Comandu, and Santa Rosalia, the latter being the most impoi^ 
tant mining region. It is south of La Paz, and its many mines were 
first worked by the Jesuits in 1700. The mines of this section in 
exploitation yield about 200,000 tons of metal annually. Lead is found 
in San Antonio and Mulege and coal in Santiago. There are abundant 
salt deposits, the principal being the "Ojo de Liebre," on the western 
coast, and those of the islands of El Carmen and San Jose on the east. 
The number of mining claims registered to December 31, 1901, amounted 
to 507, covering 4,765 hectares, and the total output of the 8 mines 
then in operation was 260,990,610 kilos, with a valuation of $1,590,642. 

Trade. — The foreign trade of the Territory is done through the cus- 
tom-houses of La Paz, San Jose del Cabo, Santa Rosalia, and Todos 



TEPIC. 

>antos. In 1901-2 this trade, according to the 
listica Fiscal" for that period, was as follows: 


"Boletin 


159 

de Esta- 




Imports. 


Exports. 


,a Paz 


170,279 

1,452 

957, 960 

176, 426 


S729, 438 








16, 342 




168, 425 






1, 206, 117 


914,205 



j Communications. — In addition to the several high roads and mule 
ijaths, the Territory contains two steam railway's, one belonging to 
Ihe El Progreso Mining Companj^ and the other to the Boleo Mining 
pompanj'^, the former in Triunfo and the latter in Santa Rosalia, and 
Measuring 10 and 3.5 kilometers in length, respectively. Several 
ines of steamers ply between the ports of the peninsula, six Mexican 
/essels and one American being engaged in this coast trade. Tele- 
graphic and mail communications are efficient, but telephone service 
s not very extended. 

I Industries. — Besides the industries directly derived from agriculture 
ind mining, no manufactures of an}^ importance are established in the 
iLerritory. 

I Divisions.— Ijowqv California is divided into two districts — the 
jtiorth^rn, population 7,583, and the southern, with a population of 
10,01:1. This latter is subdivided into two partidos and seven munici- 
palities; the Partido Sur consisting of the municipalities of La Paz, 
iSan Antonio, Santiago, San Jose, and Todos Santos, and the Partido 
pentro of Mulege and Comondu. The principal cit}^ is La Paz, which 
Is the capital of the southern district, containing 5,046 inhabitants. 
jtts principal commerce is done with San Francisco, Mazathin, Guay- 
2ias, San Bias, and Manzanillo. Ensenada de Todos Santos is the 
ihief town of the northern district, with about 2,000 inhabitants. 
3ther towns of importance are Santa Rosalia and those which bear 
the names of their respective municipalities. 

TEPIC. 

The Territory of Tepic, population 150,098, whose capital city, bear- 
ing the same name, is 953 meters above the sea level and has a popu- 
lation of 16,488, has an area of 28,371 square kilometers. 

Boundaries. — The boundaries of the State are the Pacific Ocean on 
the west, the States of Sinaloa and Durango on the north, and Jalisco 
on the east and south. 

Situation. — The Territorj^, which is situated between 20° 40' and 
23° 20' north latitude, was f ormerl}^ a portion of the State of Jalisco, 
but made a free territory during the administration of President 
Ijerdo de Tejada, in recognition of the services rendered the Republic 



160 MEXICO. 

of Mexico by the Indian Chief Lozada. The coast line of the Territory 
measures 500 kilometers in length. 

Climate. — The climate of the lowlands is hot, while that of the 
higher regions is temperate and agreeable, some of the high mountain 
table lands and slopes being cold. 

TojMgrapliy. — The Sierra Madre range traverses the Territory from 
southeast to northeast. The eastern portion of Tepic is exceedingly 
mountainous. Precipitous cliffs and deep harrcmcas (cafions) occur with 
great frequency. At the bottom of some of these are rapid moun- 
tain streams, many of which empty into Santiago River. The west- 
ern part of the Territory is level, and is crossed by numerous small 
rivers and creeks. These streams overflow during the rainy season 
and flood the plains through which they pass, enriching the soil and 
rendering it wonderfully fertile and productive. In the southern part 
of the Territory, in the district of Ahuacatlan, the country is almost 
entirely of volcanic origin. In this part of Tepic is found the cele- 
brated volcano Ceboruc, 1,525 meters above the level of the sea. In 
1870 this volcano was in a state of great activity, and threw out 
immense quantities of lava and ashes. Not far from Ceboruc is the 
celebrated Sangangiie}^ Peak, which rises to a height of 2,00() meters 
above the IcA^el of the sea. 

Hydrography . — The principal river that runs through the Territory 
is the Lerma, or Santiago, which originates in the tributaries that flow 
into Lake Chapala, in the State of Jalisco. This important river 
empties into the Pacific Ocean just to the north of the port of San Bias. 
Many smaller streams are found in the Territory, a number of which 
could easil}^ be used for irrigating the fertile vallej^^s through which 
they pass. The extension of the maritime coast line is about 300 kilo- 
meters, and San Bias is the principal port. 

Resources. — Agriculture, mining, and cattle breeding are the main 
resources of the Territory. 

Agricvltxire. — The agricultural productions of the Territory are 
numerous and abundant. They are similar in variety and number to 
the productions of the famous agricultural States of Veracruz, Puebla, 
and Oaxaca. The valley of Jala is famous for its great productive- 
ness, the fertility of the soil being such that the planting of one bushel 
of corn is said to yield six hundred fold. Besides cereals, cotton, 
tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, beans, and rice grow luxuriantly. Agri- 
culture is the chief industrj^ of Tepic, and corn and beans are raised 
in considerable quantities all over the Territory. Wheat and other 
cereals grow in the districts of Ahuacatlan and Tepic; rice in Com- 
postela, Tepic, Ahuacatlan, and San Bias; cotton in Acaponeta and 
Santiago Ixcuintle; and coffee, tobacco, and sugar cane in all the dis- 
tricts of the Territory. According to the " Guia General," Tepic has 
48 large plantations, T of which are devoted exclusively to the culti- 



TEPIC. 



161 



Station of cotton, 4 to coffee, 22 to sugar cane, and 15 to wheat, barley, 
md other grains. Samples of coffee grown in the Territory of Tepic 
ent to New York hav^e been pronounced to be of very fine grade, and 
similar samples sent to Hamburg- were valued at a price exceeding not 
jnly the Brazilian coffee, but also that of Cordoba and other coffees 
from the eastern coast of Mexico. The best coffee lands are to be 
found in the district of Compostela in a zone parallel to the ocean 
land at an elevation of 800 meters. Tobacco is exported to Central 
lA^merica, which consumes about 1,000,000 kilograms annually of this 
product grown on the west coast of Mexico. This industry is sus- 
Iceptible of great development. Rubber trees grow wild, but up to 
ithe present time no attempt has been made to establish plantations. 
The same can be said of Yucatan henequen. The soil is also suitable 
ito the cultivation of the olive tree. 

' The agricultural production of Tepic for the year 1901-2 is officially 
given in the "Anuario Estadistico ," for 1902, as follows: Rice, $142,160; 
barle}^ 115,150; corn, $1,352,936; pease, $406,802; sugar-cane products 
except rum, 2,452,610 kilos, valued at 1446,686; rum, $37,500; maguey 
products, $25,039; ixtle, $2,096; cotton, $144,080; tanning barks, 
$5,000; coffee, $159,000; tobacco, $169,872; cedar, $176,028; ocote 
wood, $152,855; sugar cane, 372,835,200 kilos, at $350,880. 
I Stock raising is carried on throughout the entire Territory. A 
number of the large plantations have great herds of cattle, shefep, and 
goats, but the industry is as j^et in its infancy, Tepic contains every 
natural condition that could be ^lesired for the profitable raising of 
live stock, and this industry is constantly developing and growing in 
importance. 

Mining. — The territory is rich in mineral wealth. The principal 
mining regions are as follows: 



District. 



Mining camps. 



Class of ores. 



Acaponeta 

AliuacatlAn 

Compostela 

Santiago Ixcuintla 
Topic 



Motaje 

Mojocuantla 

Teponahuata 

Minitos 

La Candelaria 

San Francisco 

Montana de Oro 

Castellana and San Ramon . . 

Pinolillo 

San Jose 

Refugio 

Buena vista 

La Yesca 

La Rondadera 

Huicicila 

Esplritu Santo 

Zopilote 

San Francisco de Tenamache 

Aguap^n 

Acuilapila 



Silver. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Silver and gold. 

Do. 

Do. 
Silver. 

Do. 

Do. 
Silver and gold. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Silver. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 



Tho, patio and lixiviation processes are used in treating the ores from 
many of these mines. A number of the mining regions are difficult 
509a— 04 11 



162 MEXICO. 

of access, and many mines are idle due to the lack of favorable trans- 
portation facilities. Much of this natural wealth must necessaril}^ lie 
dormant and undeveloped until railroad communication is established. 
Official figures for the mining production of the Territory in 1901-2 
show that the output of fourteen mines then in operation amounted to 
51,637,706 kilos, valued at $1,797,984, while the number of mining 
claims recorded to the 31st of December, 1902, was 277, embracing an 
area of 1,720 hectares. 

Trade.— The foreign trade of the Territory is carried on through the 
port of San Bias, the figures for 1901-2 being officially given at 
$126,710 for imports and $205,203 for exports. 

Communications. — There are no railroads in the Territory. San 
Bias is the principal port and does a large maritime business with the 
entire Pacific coast of North and South America. A great number of 
steamships and sailing vessels touch at this port annually. In addi- 
tion to a large international trade, the coastwise trade is of great 
importance, and is constantlj' increasing, San Bias being a great dis- 
tributing and commercial center. A fairly good wagon road connects 
San Bias with Tepic, Ahuacatlan, and Ixtlan, and then proceeds to 
Guadalajara in the State of Jalisco. The other highways of Tepic are 
not good, many of them being little more than mere mountain trails. 
When constructed, the proposed railwaj^ from Tepic to San Bias will 
be a powerful factor in the development of the entire Territory, 

Industries. — Considerable manufacturing is carried on in the Terri- 
tory, and especially in the cit}^ of Tepic, where there are in operation 
large cotton, soap, and other factories, provided with substantial 
buildings and equipped with modern machinery and appliances. The 
city also contains a large distiller}^ which produces considerable quan- 
tities of alcohol and mescal. 

Divisions. — The political divisions of the Territory are as follows: 



District. 



Acaponeta . . 
Ahuacatl&n . 
Compostela . 
San Bias 



Popula- 
tion. 



25, 640 
39, 529 
12, 208 
5,416 



District. 



Santiago Ixcuintla. 
Tepic 

Total 



Popula- 
tion. 



21, 850 
45, 445 



150, 098 



The Federal Government maintains 91 primary schools in the Terri- 
tor}^, 36 of which are for boys, 26 for girls, and 29 mixed. In 1902 
3,019 boys and 3,112 girls attended these schools, and the sum of 
$86,623, Mexican silver, was paid out by the Government for teachers' 
salaries and other necessary expenses incurred for educational pur- 
poses. Statistics show that during the same period there were 42 
private schools in operation in the Territory, with an enrollment of 
over 3,674 pupils of both sexes. 



CITIES AND TOWNS. 



163 



The city of Tepic, the capital of the Territory, is situated on the 
banks of the Tepic River at an elevation of 953 meters above the 
level of the sea and contains more than 15,488 inhabitants. It has 
some fine buildings, such as the Calderon theater, the penitentiary, 
the Government palace, a handsome cathedral, and a number of fine 
churches and other public edifices. The city possesses a Chamber of 
Commerce and several small but attractive parks, the most noted of 
which are Hernan Cortes and Hidalgo. Beautiful tropical and sub- 
tropical flowers and plants adorn the public parks and grow luxuriantly 
in the private gardens of the city. The climate, though somewhat 
warm in summer, is salubrious and healthful, and with better trans- 
portation facilities the city would undoubtedly rapidly increase in 
population and commercial importance. 

List of the principal cities and toiuns oj Mixico, ivith their population, according to the 

census of 1900. 



City or town. 



State. 



Popula- 
tion. 



Mexico 

Guadalajara 

Puebla 

Leon 

Monterrey 

San Luis Potosi 

M6rida 

Guanajuato 

Pachuca 

Morelia 

Aguascalientes 

Oaxaca 

Querttaro 

Orizaba 

Zacatecas 

Durango 

Chihuahua 

Veracruz 

Toluca 

Celaya 

Saltillo 

Colima 

Xalapa 

Irapuato 

Tacubaya 

Mazatldn 

Ciudad Guzmdn 

Campeche 

Tampico 

Lagos 

Tepic 

Silao 

Parral 

Matehuala 

Torreon 

Salamanca 

Valle de Santiago 

Zacapoaxtla 

Sombrerete 

Porfirio Diaz 

TeziutWn 

JuchitAn 

Colonia Morelos 

Zacatl4n 

San Francisco del Rincon. 

Xochimilco 

Hermosillo 

Sau Miguel Allende 

San Juan Bautista 

Salvatierra 

Tehuan tepee 

CuliacS,n 

Victoria 

Real del Monte 



Federal District . 

Jalisco 

Puebla 

Guanaj uato 

Nuevo Leon 

San Luis Potosi.. 

Yucat&n 

Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 

MichoacAn 

Aguascalientes.. 

Oaxaca 

Quer6taro 

Veracruz 

Zacatecas 

Durango 

Chihuahua 

Veracruz 

Mexico 

Guanajuato 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Veracruz 

Guanajuato 

Federal District . 

Sinaloa 

Jalisco 

Campeche 

Tamaulipas 

Jalisco 

Tepic 

Guanajuato 

Chihuahua 

San Luis Potosi . . 

Coahuila 

Guanajuato 

do 

Puebla 

Zacatecas 

Guanajuato 

Puebla 

Oaxaca 

Federal District . 

Puebla 

Guanajuato 

Federal District . 

Sonora 

Guanajuato 

Tabasco 

Guanajuato 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Tamaulipas 

Hidalgo 



344 
101 
93 
68 
62 
61 
43 
41 
37 
37 
35 
35 
33 

32: 

32 
31 
30 
29 
25 
25 
23 
20 
20 
19 
18 
17 
17 
17 
16 
15, 
15: 
15 
14 
14 
13 
13 
12 
12 
11 
11 
11 
11 
11 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



721 
208 
521 
263 
266 
019 
630 
486 
487 
278 
052 
049 
152 
894 
856 
092 
405 
164 
904 
565 
996 
698 
388 
640 
342 
852 
596 
109 
313 
999 
488 
355 
748 
205 
845 
.583 
660 
248 
954 
751 
625 
538 
059 
928 
904 
712 
613 
547 
543 
393 
386 
380 

08(; 

008 



164 



MEXICO. 



List of the principal cities and toims of Mexico, with their population, according to the 
census of 1900 — Continued. 



City or town. 



State. 



Tenancingo 

Tlatlauqui tepee 

UruapAn 

San Luis de la Paz . . . 

Cuernavaca 

Ciudad Jimenez 

Atlixco 

San Pedro 

Teoealtiche 

San Andres Tuxtla . . 

Guaymas 

Coatepec 

Rosario 

Santa Maria del Rio . 

Ciudad Garcia 

Matamoros 

AcAmbaro 

Amecameca 

P6njamo 

Sierra Mojada 

San Juan del Rio 

Ciudad JuArez 

Cordoba 

Tlaxiaco 

Ameca 

Ciudad Porfirio Diaz. 

Sayula 

Ciudad Lerdo 

Autl&n 

Gomez Palacio 

Pinos. 

PAtzcuaro 

Chilpancingo 

Atzcapotzalco 

Iguala 

Sahuayo 

Chilapa 

Mapimi 

Chalchicomula 

Zautla 

Santa Cruz 

Catorce 

Ixtapalapa 

Huatusco 

TehuacAn 

La Barca 

Linares 

Tula 

Cholula 

Monclova 

Laredo 

Zacoalco 

Dolores Hidalgo 

Huamantla 

Parras de la Fuente . 

El Carmen 

CuetzalAn 

Tixtla 

Tlacotalpan 

Zaehila 

Valle de Bravos 

Fresnillo 

Matamoros 

Cuautla Morelos 

Mixcoac 

San Mateo Atenco... 

Yautepec ;.. 

Libres 

ZitAcuaro 

Moroleon 

Atotonilco el Alto . . . 

AeatlAn 

TepatitlAn 

Zumpango 

Santiago Tuxtla 

Texcoeo 

Tenango 

Guadalupe Hidalgo. . 

Rioverde 

ZoquitlAn 

Yuriria 



M6xico 

Puebla 

MichoacAn 

Guanajuato 

Morelos 

Chihuahua 

Puebla 

Coahuila 

Jalisco 

Veracruz 

Sonora 

Veracruz 

Sinaloa 

San Luis Potosi . 

Zacatecas 

Tamaulipas 

Guanajuato 

Mexico 

Guanajuato 

Coahuila 

Quer^taro 

Chihuahua 

Veracruz 

Oaxaca 

Jalisco 

Coahuila 

Jalisco 

Durango 

Jalisco 

Durango 

Zacatecas 

MichoacAn 

Guerrero 

Federal District . 

Guerrero 

MichoacAn 

Guerrero 

Durango 

Puebla 

do 

Guanajuato 

San Luis Potosi . 
Federal District . 

Veracruz 

Puebla 

Jalisco 

Nuevo Leon 

Tamaulipas 

Puebla 

Coahuila 

Tamaulipas 

Jalisco 

Guanajuato 

Tlaxcala 

Coahuila 

Campeche 

Puebla 

Guerrero 

Veracruz 

Oaxaca 

Mexico 

Zacatecas 

Puebla 

Morelos 

Federal District. 

Mexico 

Morelos -- 

Puebla 

MichoacAn 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Puebla 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Veracruz 

Mexico 

do 

Federal District. 
San Luis Potosi.. 

Puebla 

Guanajuato 



OTTTES AND TOWNS. 



165 



List of the principal cities and towns of Mexico, with, thei r population, according to the 
census of 1900 — Continued. 



City or town. 



Popula- 
tion. 



Tlacolula 

Metepec 

Cocula 

Arandas 

Lerma 

Ciudad Gonzdlez 

Ticul 

Miahuatldri 

Ghllac 

Cotija 

Cortazar 

EtzatUn 

Tuxpan 

Encarnacion de Diaz . . 

Comonfort 

Tlatlaya 

Colonia Hidalgo 

Romita 

Progreso 

TacAmbaro 

La Paz 

La Canada 

Zacatelco (Santa In(?s) 

Valladolid 

El Oro 

Tetela 

Acapulco 

Angangueo 

Milpa Alta 

Montemorelos 

Lampazos 

Tlalpan 

Camargo 

Viesea 

Muzquiz 

Ometepec 

Tolimto -■ 

Zinap^cuaro 

Jiquilpan 

Huetamo 

TexcaltitlAn 

Tecamachalco 

Cuitzeo de Abasolo 

Xiuteteleo 

Villaldama 

OeuilAn 

Magdalena 

Coatepec Harinas 

Tequisquiapan 

Jiquipilco 

Coacuilco 

Canoa 

Malinalco 

Zacapil 

Sabinas Hidalgo 

Salamanca 

Coatepec 

Coapanoaya 

Cadereyta M^ndez 



Oaxaca 

Mexico 

Jalisco 

do 

Mexico 

Guanajuato 

Yucatan 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Michoaciin 

Guanajuato 

Jalisco 

Veracruz 

Jalisco 

Guanajuato 

Mexico 

Federal District . 

Guanajuato 

Yucat&n 

Michoaciin 

Baja California.. 

Quer6taro 

Tlaxcala 

YucatAn 

Mdxico 

Puebla 

Guerrero 

Michoaciin 

Federal District . 

Nuevo Le6n 

do 

Federal District . 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

do 

Guerrero 

Quer^taro 

MichoacAn 

do 

do 

Mexico 

Puebla 

Guanajuato 

Puebla 

Nuevo Le6n 

Mexico 

Federal District . 

Mexico 

Quert'taro 

Mexico 

Hidalgo 

Puebla 

Mexico 

MiclioacAn 

Nuevo Leon 

Guanajuato 

Mexico 

do 

Quer6taro 



5,675 
5,668 
5,616 
5,608 
5,601 
5,590 
5, 587 
6,56-1 
5, 541 
5,517 
5,487 
5,473 
5,455 
5,453 
5,404 
5,298 
6,284 
5, 242 
5,125 
5,070 
5,046 
6,036 
5,003 
5,000 
4,978 
4,961 
4,932 
4,868 
4,840 
4,767 
4,733 
4,732 
4,709 
4,676 
4,622 
4,597 
4,581 
4,439 
4,436 
4,388 
4,363 
4,350 
4,347 
4,315 
4,261 
4,267 
4,208 
4,161 
4,166 
4, 15.' 
4,143 
4,127 
4,118 
4,097 
4,089 
4,082 
4,041 
4,037 
4,021 



CHAPTER VII. 

AGRICXTLTUaE— REVIEW OF THE AGRICTJIiTURAL WEALTH OF 
THE COUNTRY— PRINCIPAIi PRODUCTS, THEIR CULTIVATION, 
FACILITIES FOR OBTAINING GOVERNMENT LANDS, LAND 
LAWS, FOREST PRODUCTS. 

Mexico has been estimated to contain 14,850 square kilometers of 
thick forests, 562,160 square kilometers of wooded land, and 1,265,500 
square kilometers of uncultivated land. 

Frederick A. Ober, in one of his works, draws attention to the fact 
that the shape of Mexico on the map is that of a cornucopia, and calls 
the Aztec land a "horn of plenty." Nature has certainly showered 
her gifts upon the Republic with lavish hand. Her mines are practi- 
cally inexhaustible, her forests rich in every variety of precious woods, 
her soil blessed with wonderful fecundity. 

Yet with all these natural conditions in their favor the Mexicans for 
more than two centuries delved into the bowels of the earth in search 
of silver and gold, and left the fields to lie fallow and the forests 
untouched, save where their products were needed for purely domestic 
purposes. The far-seeing Spanish Bishop Zumarraga recognized this 
when he addressed to the Council of the Indies the words following: 

"This countrj^ is very rich, very fertile, and thickly populated. It 
contains gold, silver, copper, tin, precious stones, pearls, d3^estuflLS, 
and lands abundantly producing whatever is needed. Nevertheless 
the Indians are the poorest people in the world, for they have neither 
wool, hemp, nor flax; nor have they beasts of burden. Wherefore, 
as bishop of Mexico, I feel bound to beg the gentlemen of the council 
to make an earnest effort looking to their enjoyment of these benefits. 
' ' He who would reap must first sow ; " but if, on the contrary, the tilling 
of the soil is neglected to engage solely in the working of mines the 
ruin of the country is certain." 

It has been stated that had the money which has been spent in min- 
ing in the country been invested in agriculture, Mexico would have 
been at least four times as rich as it is to-da3^ It has to go to the 
United States for many of the necessaries of life. The vegetable 
products of the country are varied in the extreme, owing to the 
diversified climate. Its productiveness is perhaps unsurpassed by 
any other country on the globe. The soil produces all the cereg-ls and 
all the fruits of the United States and Europe, besides those properly 
incident to the Tropics. 
166 



AGRICULTURAL WEALTH. 



167 



Mexico, enjoying as it does a peculiar geographical situation and 
orography, may be divided into three agricultural zones or regions, 
which may be designated, according to their principal productions, as 
follows: 

(1) The sugar cane and rubber region in the lowlands. 

(2) The coffee region in the temperate lands. 

(3) The region producing the European cereals in the central table- 
lands. 

The most fertile region, that which is almost spontaneously pro- 
ductive, is unquestionably the first, although it is the one which entails 
the most suffering, owing to the climate and the insects. 

In this favored locality the soil is marvelously rich. In official 
reports to the Department of Promotion appear statements which to 
those unacquainted with that portion of our continent would seem 
incredible. An agent of that Department, reporting upon the lands 
in the southern part of the State of Oaxaca, states that on a sugar 
plantation in the district of Pochutla there have been found stalks of 
sugar cane 30 feet in height; that the tobacco plant, which grows wild 
there, has leaves 25 to 30 inches in length; that along the Toltepec 
River basin, in the same district, the coffee trees reach the height of 
large trees and produce 12 pounds to the tree. Certain wild rubber 
trees yield yearly 10 pounds of the dry substance. The vanilla plant 
grows wild also, and is excellent in quality. Three crops of corn can 
be taken from the same field in one year. Beans are so abundant that 
they are often sold in the neighborhood at the rate of 25 cents per 
100 pounds. There are 18 species of bananas and many kinds of palms, 
one of them yielding a much-sought palm oil. One party imbued 
with great patience counted 5,000 limes on one wild lime tree. 

Along the river bottoms of this well-watered region are millions of 
acres of land having a layer of humic soil 13 to 16 feet deep. 

In this fertile belt are the States of Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, Cam- 
peche, Veracruz, and Guerrero, the principal agricultural products of 
which are cacao, coffee, sugar cane, corn, beans, and rice, which are 
abundant, and tobacco, rubber, pepper, and achiote, cultivated on a 
smaller scale. Rubber, vanilla, pepper, and achiote grow wild also. 
The yucca plant, from which starch is made, is found here in great 
quantities, as well as indigo. 

Forests of precious woods are encountered throughout this region. 

The temperate belt, although affording greater personal comforts in 
the way of climate and health-giving elements, is poorly watered, and 
the lands are not so fertile as in the hot region. 

The cold zone is less fertile still, due to the absence of streams and 
the scarcity of rains. 

A Mexican authority « states that the high lands in the Central 

"Memoriade la Secretarfa de Fomento, 1892-1896. Mexico, 1897, page 101, section V. 



168 MEXICO. 

Plateau can produce all known varieties of wheat, maize, beans, and 
tubercles, as well as the agave (maguey) and grapes, and are also 
adapted to stock raising and the exploitation of forest woods. Rice, 
sugar cane, tropical fruits, cacao, rubber, and cabinet woods can be 
produced in the hot region, while in the temperate zone (between 500 
and 1,000 meters altitude) coffee grows abundantly, and all the fruits 
of the earth can be cultivated. The same authority continues: 

"•Speaking with regard to special districts, it may be affirmed that 
Oaxaca and Chiapas have no rival (Brazil, even, being included) in the 
production of excellent grades of coffee in unlimited quantities; Vera- 
cruz and Tabasco, on the Gulf side, and the Territory of Tepic, on the 
Pacific, are actually capable of replacing Cuba in the quality of its 
tobacco and the bulk of the product; Michoacan in one section, and 
Chihuahua, Sonora, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas in another, could sup- 
ply food for millions of cattle, and Durango, Jalisco, Guanajuato, 
Puebla, and the State of Mexico are capable of raising corn and wheat 
in almost unlimited areas, and of supplying foreign markets with a 
large portion of their articles of consumption from cold and temperate 
zones, and also with some products of the Tropics. Should we add to 
these the specialties of certain regions, such as Yucatan for henequen 
or hemp, Tlaxcala and Puebla for maguey (agave), Tamaulipas for 
ixtle, Coahuila for vines, and Soconusco for cacao, an approximate idea 
may be obtained of the incalculable importance of Mexico as an agri- 
cultural country. Notwithstanding this, it may be said that national 
agriculture, even in the face of its recent progress, is yet in its infancy 
and that the soil has only been cultivated on a ver}'^ limited scale. 
Neither the proportion between the area now under cultivation and the 
arable land, the methods, machinery, and implements now employed 
in the fields, nor the methods now in use for the exploitation and prepa- 
ration of certain agricultural products are, in general terms, satisfac- 
tory. Our export trade is almost nihil, save for products as valuable 
as coffee and fruits, or as cheaplj" produced as henequen, or as near the 
centers of consumption as cattle; and even those mentioned as exported 
in the largest quantities are not as extensively cultivated as is desirable, 
nor as cheaply as the country would permit." 

There are two main causes for this state of affairs — lack of laborers 
and of means of communication — both restricting consumption to an 
extent which necessarily limits the variety of production, and giving 
preference to ordinary products over those which are finer and more 
valuable. The mountainous and broken formation of the country has 
always been, and is still to a certain extent, an obstacle to rapid and 
economic transportation of merchandise, as it hinders the establish- 
ment of permanent currents of trafiic, either by land or water, and 
deprives the agriculturist of the advantages of natural irrigation in 
certain regions, which are for this reason arid and impassable deserts. 



goveenment's aid. 169 

The authority quoted adds that another factor in the slow develop- 
ment of agricu'lture in the country has been the ignorance of the 
I farming population in the matter of the preparation of the soil and 
I the use of fertilizers and other improved methods of cultivation. 
I The Government of Mexico has shown a decided interest in improv- 
ing these conditions, and for several years the Department of Promo- 
tion has been endeavoring to disseminate among the agricultural 
classes information tending to educate them, teaching them improved 
and scientific methods of cultivation, irrigation, fertilization, and 
drainage of the soil, and calling their attention to those products 
which could be advantageously cultivated in the different zones of the 
Republic. With this object in view, the Department issues a monthly 
bulletin of agriculture, mining, and industries, and publishes from 
time to time important works on special subjects, which are exten- 
sively circulated among the agriculturists. The results accomplished 
by these publications have been most favorable to the agricultural 
interests of the country, so far having occasioned the establishment 
|! and development of the culture of the grape and other fruits and of 
: forage plants, and also the introduction of apiculture and sericulture. 
In order to further the agricultural interests of the Republic, the 
ii Department has imported, for gratuitous distribution among the most 
' advanced agriculturists, seeds and plants, and has also encouraged 
agricultural fairs and expositions. The distribution began with vine 
shoots and olive-tree slips and other plants, the cultivation of which 
is giving excellent results. The cultivation of the grape has received 
especial impetus in the States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and Guanajuato. 
President Diaz, in his message to Congress April 1, 1903, refers to 
agriculture in the following language: 

"National agriculture continues to receive aid from the federation 
by means of the free distribution of seeds for new cultures or for the 
extension of cultures already in exploitation, such as the distribution 
of slips of the grapevine, which are given away with profusion, of seeds 
of the chaparro salado, Sumatran tobacco, giant corn, jute, huayule, 
and some others. The exploitation of national lands has increased, 
owing to the grants made, which embrace 419,000 hectares." 

At the beginning of 1892 there were imported 1,030,000 shoots of 
the vine (simple) and 11,000 with roots, which were distributed among 
the States of Coahuila, Chihuahua, and other points on the Central 
Plateau and the south of the Republic. This was attended with excel- 
lent results, and toward the end of the fiscal year 1893 shoots to the 
number of 3,500,000 were imported, principally from Lower Califor- 
nia, together with 72,000 olive slips and 16,000 other fruit-bearing 
trees. The distribution has continued, the shoots and slips of trees 
already acclimated being also used for the purpose. 



170 MEXICO. 

In certain localities the cork tree {Qnercus suher) has been intro- 
duced, as well as the "Choro-gi''' {IlachyH iu'hifera)^m\ excellent tuber 
of the potato family indigenous to Germany. Seeds of the fodder plant 
called Zacaton de Guinea have also been imported and distributed. 
This plant requires but little care and irrigation, and its cultivation 
on Mexican soil has been very successful. Seeds of the "Riga" flax 
have been imported and distributed with a view to encouraging the 
cultivation of the plant and the establishment of the industries derived 
from its exploitation. 

For the purpose of establishing the silkworm industry in the coun- 
try, seeds of the best varieties of the mulberry tree for gratuitous 
distribution were imported from Italy, the results so far obtained 
being satisfactory. Chinese and Japanese cocoons were ordered from 
San Francisco, Cal., but the latter varieties were not obtainable. 
Cocoons of a good quality have been imported from France and dis- 
tributed gratis. The results obtained in this branch of industry were 
shown at the Sericultural Exposition held in Irapuato in 1895, when 
the quantity and quality of the Mexican product attracted great atten- 
tion. The silk industry may therefore now be regarded as existent 
in the country, its development having been noteworthy, and the 
product remarkable for beauty and finish. Distribution has also been 
made, among such agriculturists as applied for them, of seeds of 
Kafir, tobacco, sugar cane, agave, and flax. 

The efiorts of the Department to promote the agricultural interests 
of the country have not been confined to the importation and distri- 
bution of seeds and plants. Research and investigation have been 
extended to various industries, among others the cultivation of sugar 
cane and the manufacture of its products; also, apiculture and the 
cultivation of coffee, cotton, sesamum or benne seed, leguminous plants, 
and tubers have received attention. Frequent studies have been made 
of the diseases and plagues affecting certain plants, and the results have 
been published and extensively circulated among interested parties. 

The preservation of the national forests, their replanting, and method- 
ical exploitation, have been matters of interest and investigation on the 
part of the Department of Promotion, as the indiscriminate felling of 
trees at all seasons was gradually destroying the forests; this being 
especially the case since the advent of railroads and the increased 
number of industrial establishments using timber instead of iron as 
constructive material, and wood instead of coal as fuel, the latter com- 
bustible not being obtainable at a fair price in sufficient quantities. 
A law has been enacted on this subject, the regulations stating in 
detail the duties of the officers appointed by the Government to the 
care of the forests; the rules and principles to which the exploitation 
of the forests and their products are subjected; the rules to be followed 
in making contracts and in cutting down the trees, and also creating a 



lERIUATION. 



171 



eservation of national lands for forestiy, allotting 2,311,445 hectares 
io the State of Chihuahua and 203,635 to the State of Chiapas. 

With the same object of fostering the agricultural interests of the 
;ountr3^, several agricultural expositions have been very successfully 
leld and prizes have been awarded to the best exhibitors, and fairs for 
lie exhibition of cattle, implements, machinery, agricultural products 
n general, flowers, tishes, fruits, etc., have contributed to the same 
mds. During these fairs the plan of giving lectures on several topics 
ivas adopted, viz, on the usefulness of stock raising; the cross-breeding 
md acclimatization of cattle; the usefulness and value of agricultural 
machinery; on sericulture, horticulture, and other important subjects. 
One of the most important problems to be solved afi'ecting the rapid 
development of agriculture in Mexico is the lack of proper irrigation, 
Iwhich can only be compared in magnitude to the scarcity of labor. 
Mexican territor}^, owing to its topograph}^, has no natural irrigation, 
he land rises abruptly from the coast to a habitable altitude of over 
,000 meters, thus creating a serious and insurmountable obstacle both 
o the retention and gradual absorption of the rain waters which are 
recipitated over the rough surface of the land, passing with great 
rapidity over the fields and river beds in their course to the sea, leav- 
ing behind a deplorable and ruinous drought, and in some places an 
almost perpetual aridit3^ An extended rain}^ season is of especial 
necessity to the profitable cultivation of the soil in all the central 
table-land, the cold region, and in a large portion of the temperate 
region, but when the rainfall is scanty, as is the case in extensive sec- 
tions of the northern frontier and in other regions, viz, the States of 
iSan Luis Potosi and Zacatecas, or when there is any alteration in its 
period, the crops are lost, the cattle sufi'er and the consequences are 
felt in all other industries. Under these circumstances, the Mexican 
Government realized that a matter of such vital importance could not 
be left entirely to private initiative, and therefore framed a law bearing 
date of June 5, 1888, authorizing the Executive to grant concessions, 
either to private parties or to companies, for the use of the waters of 
the Republic for irrigation purposes or as motive power in industries. 
The privileges granted by these concessions are: 

(1) Exemption for five years from all Federal taxes, the stamp tax 
excepted, on all moneys invested in the surve}^, construction, and 
repairs of the works mentioned in the concession. 

(2) The introduction, free of import duties, for the first time only, 
of the machinery, scientific instruments, and necessary apparatus for 
the survey, construction, and exploitation of said works. 

(3) The right to occupy gratuitously the public and national lands 
for the passage of canals and for the construction of dams or dikes 
and reservoirs. 

(4) The right to expropriate for public utility any lands belonging 



172 



MEXICO. 



to private parties, indemnification being previously made on the same 
basis as that governing railroad concessions. 

The concessionaires are under the following obligations: 

(1) To make a deposit or surety in bonds of the public debt. 

(2) To submit for the approval of the Department of Promotion the 
plans, outlines, and reports describing the work, 

(3) To respect the rights of third parties, submitting any differences 
to the action of the courts, and to admit and defray the expenses of 
any inspecting engineer appointed by the Executive. 

The law also authorizes the Executive to grant free entry into the 
country of the machinery and apparatus necessary to the employ 
of the waters, either for agricultural or industrial purposes, if the 
concession has been granted by a State, provided the companies give 
security for the performance of the work in accordance with the rules 
and limitations established by the Federal Executive. On the 18th of 
September, 1896, this law was regulated by another, which has given 
excellent results, many of the old concessionaires having taken advan- 
tage of its provisions. These laws have been framed not only to pro- 
vide for the irrigation of the lands, but also for the use of the water 
as motive power, thus opening a new and extended future to the 
industrial progress of the Republic. 

PRINCIPAL PRODUCTS. 

Cereals. — Corn, wheat, barley, and rice, in the order given, are the 
principal cereals cultivated in Mexico. 

Corn. — This product is an eminently Mexican staple, serving as 
nutriment for man and beast and being the principal article of food 
for the majority of the inhabitants, who consume it in the form of 
cakes called tortillas. According to the figures given by the "Anuario 
Estadistico" for 1901 and 1902, the production of corn from 1897 to 
1901, inclusive, was as follows: 



Year. 


Production. 


Value. 


Year. 


Production. 


Value. 


1897 


IlectolUers. 
42, 954, 684 
39,238,300 
32,927,278 


S87, 232, 671 
82, 408, 009 
71,807,205 


1900 


Hectoliters. 
32, 492, 489 
32, 934, 757 


887,301,928 


1898 


1901 


103,159,027 


1899 











The following figures show the increase in price per hectoliter:'* 



1897. 
1898. 
1899 



P2.02 
2.09 
2.14 



1900. 
1901. 



$2. 65 
3.13 



The total production for the year 1901-2, according to the same 
authority, amounted to 27,521,808 hectoliters, valued at $78,411,844. 

WJieat. — At the time of the conquest, according to the historian 
Bancroft,^ the only European cereal raised in Mexico to any extent 

«A hectoliter is equivalent to 2.8379 bushels. 

b History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, Chap. XXIX, p. 611, 1883. 



WHEAT. 



173 



was wheat, and although the climatic conditions were propitious, the 
lack of moisture, which could only be overcome by irrigation, would 
frequently hinder its cultivation. Notwithstanding this drawback, the 
yield exceeded the average returns obtained in Europe, being, in some 
instances, as high as seventy or eighty fold. One of the varieties, 
which was cultivated chiefly in the neighborhood of Puebla, and called 
trigo yianquillo^ was remarkable for its abundant yield. In 1677 its 
cultivation was forbidden by a decree of the Viceroy and "Audiencia" 
as injurious to health, but it was resumed in 1692. 

The transportation facilities oft'ered by the great American railroad 
systems has given great impetus to the raising of this grain, and 
Mexico is becoming a wheat-growing country. Wheat grows on the 
plateau of Mexico at an elevation of from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above 
sea level and between the eighteenth and twentj'^-fourth parallels of 
latitude. The area best adapted to its cultivation comprises some 
52,000 square miles, over one-third of which could be planted in wheat 
without serious detriment to the other agricultural interests of the 
countr}^ This land is situated in the States of Michoacan, Jalisco, 
Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, and Queretaro. 
, The Mexican plan of cultivation makes it possible to take off the 
land three crops every two years — one crop of wheat and two crops 
of corn. The average yield of wheat per acre is about 20 bushels and 
of corn about 50 bushels on irrigated soils and about 30 to 35 on dry 
lands. These are considered conservative figures. Were this wheat 
area cultivated to its fullest capacity, the wheat and corn 3deld of one- 
third of the 52,000 square miles of suitable lands would be: Wheat, 
110,000,000 bushels, and corn, 440,000,000 bushels per year, according 
to a conservative estimate made in 1888. This immense yield would 
all be available for foreign markets, as the home consumption could 
j be always provided for by the outlying lands. Since the date of this 
! estimate, improved machinery and more systematic treatment of the 
soil have considerably increased the yield of the lands devoted to the 
cultivation of the cereals mentioned, which are by no means all that 
could be utilized in this way. 
Wheat in Mexico is grown entirely in the table-lands and in places 
j where irrigation is possible. Where the haciendas are irrigated by 
: the more modern method of extensive irrigating canals with small 
streams, and where the elevation of the local irrigation ditch does not 
\ exceed 8 or 10 inches, the reapers pass over these ridges and they do 
! not interfere with the working of the machine. 

The number of modern flour mills in the Republic is estimated to be 
about forty. The largest mill using modern machinery is located in 
Toluca, in the State of Mexico, and has an output of 500 kilos per da}'. 
There is under construction in the City of Mexico a mill a witka 



174 



MEXICO. 



capacit}- of 600 kilos a day. In Guadalajara, Torreon, Puebla, Celaya, 
Guanajuato, Chihuahua, Morelia, and Orizaba are mills using modern 
machinery with a capacity of from 75 to 100 kilos per da3^ In the city 
of Auguascalientes, San Luis Potosi, there are several small mills, with 
an average capacity of 50 kilos per da3^ In Monterey there is one 
mill with a capacity of 100 kilos per da3^ 

Mexican wheat is small and hard, and when properl}^ milled makes 
good flour. Specimens of this wheat exhibited at the Centennial 
Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 took the first prize. 

There are no official figures showing the production of flour in 
Mexico. However there were 4,000,000 kilos imported into the 
Republic in 1902 at a nominal value of $130,000, and 3,500,000 kilos 
'of wheat, with a nominal value of $150,000. The supplj^ of white 
flour is far from equal to the demand, and it is due to this fact that 
the dutjT^ was taken off the wheat so that it might be imported and 
given to the consumer at a reasonable price. 

The railway companies, at the request of the Government, have 
reduced the freight rate something like 16 per cent on wheat impor- 
tations. The demand for white flour has increased so much that even 
the small farmers have taken to growing it for sale instead of corn, 
which was formerl}^ the custom. 

The imports of wheat from the United States amounted in 1901 to 
$1,498. In November, 1902, the customs duty was reduced from |5 
to 50 cents silver per 100 kilos (220 pounds) and the importation from 
the United States increased in consequence to $731,336 in 1902 and to 
$951,572 in 1903. 

Mexican ofiicial statistics for 1901-2 show that the total produc- 
tion of wheat for that 3^ear amounted to 229,892,752 kilos, valued 
at $24,522,429. The principal States producing this grain were as 
follows: 



Kilos. 



Value. 



Michoacto 

Sonora 

Guanajuato 

Puebla 

Coahuila . . . 

Mexico 

Durango . . . 

Jalisco 

Quer^taro.. 



35, 521, 640 
34, 778, 728 
30,581,297 
22, 225, 517 
18,453,439 
15,225,297 
14, 930, 850 
13,204,823 
12, 765, 359 



$2, 470, 219 
2, 967, 151 
2,493,372 
1,912,478 
1,436,079 
7,241,.'i41 
1, 176, 220 
998, 000 
858, 470 



From 1898 to 1902, inclusive, the production of wheat has been 
increasing, except in 1901, as shown in these figures: 



Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


1898 




239, 186, 186 
252, 749, 505 
338, 263, 902 
327,159,027 
329, 892, 752 


$16, 509, 735 


1899 


17, 607, 924 


1900 


22, T^O, 056 


1901 


23, 800, 122 


1902 


24,522,429 







COFFEE. 



175 



Barley. — All the States of the Republic, with the exception of 
pampeche, Colima, Guerrero, Tabasco, and Yucatan, produce barley, 
ihe total production for 1901-2 being- officially given at 2,130,118 
lilos, valued at 14,916,523, Puebia and Mexico being the largest 
)roducers. 

Rice. — For the year above mentioned the production of rice amounted 
o 18.126,070 kilos, with a valuation of $2,540,233, Morelos, Michoacan, 
t,nd Colima being the largest producers out of 15 States. 

The following table from the " Anuario Estadistico " for 1902 shows 
(he total cereal production of the countr}^ : 



states. 



Rice. 



Barley. 



Kilos. 



Value. 



Hecto- 
liters. 



Value. 



Corn. 



Hecto- 
liters. 



Wheat. 



Kilos. 



Value. 



ivguascalientes.. 
■iaja California . 

Pampeche 

loahuila 

;olima 

Ihiapas 

,)istrito Federal. 

)urango 

iuanajuato 

(uerrero 

lidalgo 

alisco 

lexico 

lichoaedn 

lorelos 

^uevo Leon 

)axaca 

'uebla 

Jueretaro 

jan Luis Potosi . 

jinaloa 

ionora 

Tabasco 

Pamaulipas 

Tepic 

ilaxcala 

Tucat^n 

lacatecas 



45, 300 

1,150 

2, 075, 400 

810, 727 



17, 248 

172 

440, 640 

137, 702 



1,189 
1,352 



12,764 
6, 525 



26, 052| 66, 115 



467, 231 

31,329 

503, 796 

60, 000 

4,410,250 

5, 620, 447 



62, 789 

15, 583 

98, 285 

9,000 

622, 388 

769, 450 



180; 

66, 414 

6,760 

42, 985 



675 
163, 287 
21,250 
92, 760 



36, 978 
2, 112, 662 



5,582 
109, 019 



Total. 



59, 197 



12,485 



229, 683 

52, 149 

481,727 

81,132 

894 j 

26, 986! 

17, 549} 

595,517 

23, 003! 

107, 070! 

160| 

4,219 



1,053,113 
"'838,' 500 



107, 430 
'i42,'466 



133, 736 

1,091,651 

164,192 

2,365 

56,929 

34, 906 

1, 328, 180 

52, 006 

319, 480 

420 

21,095 



9, 7001 

4, 500' 

315, 350, 



9,700 

15, 450 

710, .556 



35. 547 153, 615 



1,354, 

6, 

80, 

.543, 

631, 

656, 

357, 

1, 584, 

1,761, 

570, 

905, 

4, 050, 

1, 900, 

1, 807, 

289, 

270, 

1,978, 

2,224, 

626, 

1,532, 

955, 

359, 

379, 

404, 

782, 

237, 

171, 

1,096, 



450,f4, 
302 
980 

431 ' 2, 

6941 1, 

985 1, 

794 1. 

226 4, 

125 5, 

964 1, 

680' 2, 



1. 

6, 

602' 6. 
484 
771 
225 
233 
747 



063, 350 
22, 912 
380, 880 
135, 694 
141,917 
519, 796 
427, 533 
664, 548 
449, 805 
017,966 
057, 087 
844, 366 
374, 172 
864, 796 
829, 899 
032, 128 
942, 932 

332. 746 
041,694 
247, 437 
653, 087 
973, 660 
146,012 
146, 763 
352, 936 
886, 977 

209. 747 
651,004 



1, 767, 240 
638, 550 



208, 765 
46, 187 



18,453,439 



1,435,079 



18, 126, 070 



2,540,233 



2,130,118, 4,916,523 



27, 521, 808,78, 411, 844 



676, 179 

3, 436, 610 

14,930,850 

30,581,297 

805 

2,701,955 

13, 204, 823 

15, 255, 297 

35,521,640 

79, 954 

249, 085 

7,858,708 

22, 225, 517 

12, 766, 359 

666, 263 

225, 900 

34,778,728 



76, 617 

613, 789 

1,176,220 

2, 493, 372 

60 

193, 625 

998, 002 

7,241,541 

2, 470, 219 

6,949 

18, 585 

498, 905 

1, 912, 473 

858, 470 

57, 683 

25, 442 

2, 967, 151 



14,800 
9, 386, 064 



1,184 
844, 694 



4,473,( 



377, 627 



229, 892, 752 



24, 522, 429 



'o;ffee. — Mexican coffee is of excellent quality; that produced in 
LJruapam (Michoacan) and in the State of Colima has been classed with 
.Mocha. It is claimed that it is possible to so increase the raising of 
joffee that Mexico can supply more of the aromatic bean to the mar- 
kets of the world than all other countries combined, save only Brazil, 
^rhe immense area adapted to its cultivation may be estimated when it 
lis known that it grows both in the hot and temperate belts. Hereto- 
fore Mexico occupied the fourth place among the countries importing 
3offee into the United States, which is her best market. Now, it is 
asserted, she immediately follows Brazil, which stands first. Within 
the last ten years this Mexican product has risen from the fifth to the 
third place in point of quaIit3^ 

The Mexican consul in Antwerp, Belgium, in a report states that 

from the 1st of January, 1904. all Belgian duties on Mexican coffee 

.|Will be abolished, and that the duty on roasted coffee will be 10 francs 



176 MEXICO. 

per 100 kilograms. The consul adds that Mexican coffee is coming 
rapidly into favor in Belgium. It may be added that requests for 
Mexican coffee are rapidly increasing in Germany, France, and Eng- 
land, while in the United States there is a great demand, and a number 
of concerns are giving their entire attention to the Mexican berry. 
As a result, coffee raising, which has been somewhat stagnant for the 
past few years, is enjoying a revival, and a number of old-time planters 
are preparing lands for setting out new orchards. 

Coffee is not indigenous to the country, but it was originally brougU 
from the West Indies about 1Y90. Still, it was not until 1818 that the 
plant was properly cultivated, when Don Juan A. Gomez, called the 
Benefactor of Cordoba, demonstrated that Mexico had the soil and 
climate essential to the cultivation of coffee. The berry is mostlj^ 
raised in Colima, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Mexico, Michoa- 
can, Morelos, San Luis Potosi, Tabasco, and Veracruz.'* 

«"The coffee plant mostly cultivated in Mexico is a sub variety of the Mocha, or 
Coffea arabica. This is an evergreen, partaking more of the nature of a shrub, which 
in a state of cultivation varies in height from 5 to 7 feet. The range of this species 
is at elevations of from 1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, south of latitude 22° 
north, where the temperature does not fall below 55° F. ; still, the most favorable 
climate for it would be where the temperature does not fall below 60° nor rise above 
80° in the shade. As to humidity, there should be from 75 to 150 inches of rain dur- 
ing the year, and the plant should be irrigated during the dry season, if required. 
The myrtle kind, which is considered as second in quality, is also extensively culti- 
vated. It is very similar to the Java, and is distinguished from the Mocha variety 
by the leaf being larger and the corolla smaller. This plant is hardier than the 
Mocha kind and will stand higher temperature; it is mostly cultivated in the Cordoba 
district. It will thrive well at an elevation of from 500 to 3,000 feet above sea level. 
It is the opinion of the writer that Liberian coffee would thrive in the hot climates 
of Yucatan, Campeche, Tabasco, and Veracruz. This is the hardiest of all the coffee 
trees adapted to the climates of Mexico, and will stand a very high temperature. 

' ' As the coffee tree has a long taproot, it will thrive better on land where the soil 
is deep. The best soil in Mexico is a well-drained, loamy one, either of a virgin 
mountainous composition, or of a volcanic nature, rich in humus. A rocky soil, 
where the earth is deep between the rocks, is very suitable, and less manuring is 
then required for the plants, as the rocks are continually adding to the soil by the 
decomposing action of the air, rain, and other natural forces. The climate most 
adaptable to coffee in Mexico is that found in the mountainous regions, with a range 
of temperature from 55° to 86° F. The best coffee is grown at elevations varying 
from 2,200 to 4, 500 feet above the sea, in sections south of Veracruz; but in loca- 
tions below latitude 21° north, the north limit of the coffee zone on the Gulf side, 
the climate being cooler, the bush requires lower elevations, ranging from 600 to 
3,000 feet. The plant is, however, cultivated by some planters at much lower levels, 
and even within a few miles from the seashore — for instance, in Misantla, Acayucan, 
Minatitlan, and Tuxtla, Veracruz; and in Cardenas, Comalcalco, Cunduacan, 
Nacayuca, and San Juan Bautista, Tabasco. An extremely wet climate is not favor- 
able to the coffee plant, and it will not thrive in very exposed situations. If proper 
aspect as regards sun and winds can not be obtained, the exposure can nearly always 
be modified by shelter belts of trees. On the Pacific side the prevailing south winds 
must be avoided at low elevations, and on this side the tree can be planted at much 



COFFEE. 



177 



Mr. Matias Romero, who for many years devoted his attention to 
Ijoffee culture, estimated the results of coflfee raising as follows: 



:n India . , 
n Ceylon . 
n M6xico 



Cost of 

planting a 

tree. 



Annual 

product of 

a tree. 



Pounds. 
0. 4563 
.4563 
1 



Expense of 

cultivating 

one tree. 



Net 
profit. 



Per cent. 
25.49 
25.15 
90 



Romero's averages have been considered too high as regards the 
Bost of cultivation and too low as regards the annual yield. In an 
official publication*^ appears the statement that in the State of Chiapas, 
where the land is good, and care and economy have been exercised in 
the cultivation, the following have been the results: 

Lnnual expense of cultivation (one tree) $0. 01 

innual yield for each tree pounds. . 10 

In the State of Oaxaca on one plantation, 21 months after planting, 
he trees yielded 3 pounds of dry coflfee each. 

In the District of Choapam, of the same State, the average crop is 
6 pounds of cojffee for each tree, and there are trees producing 25 
pounds of dry coffee a year. Romero takes 1 pound as the average 
yield of Mexican coffee trees. In arriving at this figure he takes into 
consideration all kinds of coffee plantations, those laid out in poor 
localities, in poor seasons, and improperly cultivated; but it appears 
to be pretty well settled that good lands, cultivated under proper con- 
ditions, will render crops of from 4 to 10 pounds j^er tree. Col. E. C. 
More, late United States Consul-General to Mexico, agrees with Romero 
rin that, under present conditions, the profits of coffee raising are 90 
per cent per annum; but that they differ largely in the several belts 
devoted to the culture of the bean is evidenced by the fact that an 
American coffee expert of Fortin and Cordoba, State of Veracruz, 
states that the profits reach 150 per cent. The bean sells, according 

(higher elevations, as the range which branches off at Jalisco and joins the Toluca 
Mountain and the Popocatepetl Peak breaks off the cold north winds and shelters 
the regions below it. As to direct sun exposure, when it is desirable to take advan- 
tage of the heat at high elevations it is always convenient to acquire, as far as pos- 
sible, a southern exposure; but where the elevation is low and the temperature is 
high such an exposure would be injurious to the plant, in which case it is better to 
procure an eastern exposure. Generally, the action of the rains modifies the tem- 
perature in the Tropics, and at elevations between 2,000 and 4,500 feet above sea 
level clouds gather along the mountains almost every day before the rays of the 
noon sun bear their strong influence in those localities. On the Gulf side the trees 
that have an eastern sun exposure, so that the sun strikes them during the morning, 
thriAre better and yield more." — (Production of coffee in Mexico, U. S. Consular 
Reports, Vol. LIT, Sept., 1896, pp. 103-121.) 
«Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, R. de Zayas Enriquez, Mexico, 1893, p. 458, 



509a— 04- 



-12 



178 



MEXICO. 



to class, at from $2J: to $32 per hundredweight, Mexican money. In 
the Huasteca Potosina section of Veracruz coffee planting during the 
past three years has increased at the rate of 60 per cent a year. Gen- 
erally it costs $7 silver to raise, pick, clean, and sack a hundred- 
weight of coffee. The selling price averages $27 per hundredweight 
on the ground. The product per acre is from 250 to 500 pounds. The 
value of the exports to all countries in 1897 was $10,649,119. 

The first recorded exportation of coffee from Mexico to the United 
States was in 1825, amounting in value to $216,850. The same coun- 
try furnished the latter during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1898, 
34,721,168 pounds; in 1901, 60,459,865 pounds, and in 1903, 22,207,086 
pounds. Latest available Mexican statistics for 1902 show that' the 
exports of coffee to all parts of the world amounted to 22,565,183 
kilos, valued at $10,552,313, the United States being the largest con 
sumer, with 14,592,755 kilos, valued at $6,826,250. Germany occu 
pies the next place, with over 3,500,000 kilos, and then follow France! 
with nearly 2,000,000, and England, with over 1,700,000 kilos. During 
the first six months of 1902-3 the total exports of this grain is officially 
given in the Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal at 4,445,615 kilos, with i 
declared invoice value of $2,050,273. 

The number of American firms engaged in coffee planting in Mexico 
is, according to a report of Consul-General Barlow,« as follows: 
Chiapas, 5; Oaxaca, 13; Puebla, 19; Tabasco, 2; Tepic, 1, and Vera 
cruz, 15— in all 55. Many of the American firms ship their coffee t 
St. Louis, Mo., where it is roasted, ground, and stored for sale. 
Much of the product of Oaxaca goes directly to London, where it 
enters into competition with the best grades of the South American 
product. 

The " Anuario Estadistico " for 1901-2 gives the following figures for- 
the production of coffee in the fiscal year named, viz, 9,983,646 kilos,' 
valued at $2,799,317— the largest producer being the State of Chiapas' 
with 4,330,818 kilos, for $1,143,228, and the State of Oaxaca next 
with 1,800,523 kilos, at over $500,000. The same authority quote 
the following figures for the production of the berry for the calenda 
years named: 



Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


1898 


16, 363, 230 
37, 609, 264 
21, 088, 123 
27, 424, 415 
9, 983, 546 


$4, 600, 680 


1899 


1900 




1901 


6, 048, 509 


1902 






2, 799, 317 


Total 


112, 468, 578 


33,247,941 


. .. _ 



Tohacco.~T\\& tobacco plant (the yetl of the Aztecs) is indigenous 
to Mexico. Its cultivation and use soon became known amono- the 



« Commercial Relations of the United States, 1902, Vol. I, 



TOBACCO. 179 

Spaniards and was not seriousl}^ restricted for nearly- two centuries 
ufter the conquest. In 1764 the Crown appropriated the right to the 
sale and manufacture of the plant, its culture being' confined to the 
districts of Orizaba, Cordoba, Huatusco, and Zongolica, severe penal- 
ties being fixed for its cultivation elsewhere. The product was pur- 
chased by the Government at a stipulated price, which in turn sold 
the leaf at a profit of about 200 per cent. The revenues derived from 
this monopoly in 1783 amounted to $777,651; in 1792, to $684,109; in 
1794, to $773,442, and in 1801-2, about $4,000,000 silver. Under 
the Spanish regime factories were established in several cities, the 
principal being situated in Mexico and Queretaro, each employing 
about 7,000 persons of both sexes, with an aggregate pay roll of more 
than $700,000 a year. The annual product of these establishments 
amounted to nearly $7,500,000, about one-half of which belonged to 
the Crown. 

In 1868 several foreign cultivators and manufacturers, principally 
Cuban, went to Mexico, where they began to cultivate the plant on an 
extensive scale. Not a little of the success attained in this industry is 
due to Frenchmen, as a French writer, Louis Lejeune, in a pamphlet 
on the subject, first drew attention to the fact that the tobacco grown 
in the upper valley of the Papaloapan River produced leaves as fine 
and silky and even more aromatic than those of the Vuelta Abajo, in 
Cuba. In his pamphlet Mr. Lejeune made an elaborate comparison of 
the relative cost of starting a tobacco plantation in Cuba and in Mex- 
ico, showing that with silver at par, as was the case at the time of his 
writing, the expenses in Mexico were only about one-half as great as 
in Cuba, not taking into account the price of land and the cost of 
transportation. At the Paris Exposition (1889) the Mexican product 
obtained gold, silver, and bronze medals, being considered equal to, if 
not the superior, of Habana tobacco. In 1894 and 1895, "La Regie," 
a department created in France to regulate the importation and traffic 
of tobacco, began to accept the Mexican product. 

The Mexican tobacco has a flavor peculiarly its own, and it grows 
upon one, and where it has been used for any length of time, as upon 
the western coast of the United States, it is rapidly superseding the 
Cuban article. 

Tobacco is raised along the mountain countr}^ lying between Victoria, 
State of Tamaulipas, and Campeche, capital of the State of the same 
name, also on the Pacific slope of the States of Chiapas, Oaxaca, 
Guerrero, Michoacan, Jalisco, C^olima, Sonora, and the Territory of 
Tepic. It is likewise cultivated in. the interior districts of Morelos, 
Michoacan, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tabasco, Guerrero, Jalisco, 
Colima, and the Territory last above named. In addition to the parts 
named, the Government maps show 113 difl'erent cantons, or small 
districts, where the weed is now being cultivated. In the virgin 



180 



MEXICO. 



valleys along the rivers of the States on the Pacific slope the plant 
may find the elements which best meet its requirements. 

In order to produce an aromatic and mild as well as large and fine 
leaf it is necessary that the soil should be sandy, well charged with 
organic vegetable matter in decomposition, and contain oxides of iron 
and aluminum, and also lime, although this is not an indispensable 
requisite. This is the soil Mexico provides, and it is so deep that it is 
not necessary to plant a crop of corn after the tobacco crop, planters 
instead raising a second or seedling crop of tobacco, which furnishes 
the small and mild leaf used in cigarette making. The extent of the 
tobacco region is immense, probably one hundred times that of the 
same region in Cuba. 

As a material for " fillers" Mexican tobacco is unexcelled. Practi- 
cally no wrapper tobacco is grown in Mexico. The finest Mexican 
cigars go to Habana, where they sell at $1.67 per pound. All of the 
Central American and some of the South American countries buy 
these cigars, paying an average of $1,05 a pound. 

Statistics for the tobacco production of Mexico during the fiscal 
year 1902-8, published in the " Economista Mexicano " of November 
28, 1903, show the following figures: 



Year. 



1898-99 . . 
1899-1900 
1900-1901 
1901-2 . . . 
1902-3... 



Cigarettes. 



Kilos. 
4, 916, 730 
5, 906, 519 
5,974,833 
6, 203, 966 
7, 305, 079 



Cigars, 
cut. 



Kilos. 
174, 627 
236, 559 
283, 472 
395, 510 
393, 083 



Cigars, 
perilla. 



Kilos. 
432, 965 
417,931 
405, 797 
425, 165 
458, 021 



Rap6. 



Kilos. 
414 
22 
16 
9 
14 



Fine cut, 
sifted. 



Kilos. 
22, 828 
23, 625 
17, 656 
23, 260 
23,051 



Fine cut. 



Kilos. 

Ill 

108 

459 

1,196 

3,585 



A steady increase is observable in all the various forms of manufac- 
tured tobacco, except the rape or snuff, which has almost ceased to be 
made, the demand being in fact almost nominal. The increase in the 
cigarettes is very considerable, having almost doubled in the five years 
under review; the homemade cigarettes have gradually driven the 
Habana article from the Mexican market, Mexico having formerly 
been one of the greatest consumers. 

The total production of tobacco during 1901-2 is officially given at 
3,907,311 kilos, valued at $758,200, the Territory of Tepic being the 
largest producer with 1,188,700 kilos, at $169,872, all the States of the 
Republic having contributed, with the exception of Morelos, Queretaro, 
and Tamaulipas. The total production of the country from 1898 to 1902 
is officially quoted at 79,718,221 kilos, valued at $12,351,973. 

Exports of manufactured tobacco during 1902 amounted to 236,448 
kilos, with a valuation of $650,524, England being the largest importer — 
157,679 kilos, at $468,968; the United States being second with 18,549 
kilos, at $50,601. The next importing countries were Colombia, with 
18,500 kilos, in round numbers, at $22,600; Guatemala, 17,800 kilos, 



COTTON. 181 

$26,5U0, and Germany, 15,300 kilos, at $51,500. For the first half of 
1902-3, exports were 123,911 kilos, at $353,780. 

Exports of leaf tobacco amounted in 1902 to 1,111,326 kilos, at 
$1,020,479 — Germany, Belgium, and the United States being the 
largest consumers in the order given, as follows: 



Country. 



Germany 

Belgium 

United States . 



Kilos. 



495, 341 
432, 262 
130, 276 



Value. 



$374, 337 
448,326 
162, 771 



For the first six months of 1902-3 these exports were 195,332, 
valued at $200,000. 

Mexican leaf tobacco imports for 1902 are officially given at 1,260,186 
kilos, valued at $226,190, the United States being represented by 
1,251,767 kilos, at $218,025. 

Cotton. — Cotton has been cultivated in Mexico from time immemo- 
rial. Prior to the advent of the Aztecs in the valley of Mexico their 
predecessors knew and practiced the art of cotton spinning. 

Although Mexico is so thoroughly adapted by soil and climate to 
the production of this fiber, and although she has an acreage sufficient 
to produce it in quantities greater than the United States, she is 
not only not an exporting nation, but actually imports annually about 
$2,000,000 worth of the staple to supply the demand of her factories. 
In 1897-98 she imported 21,216,287 pounds from the United States; 
in 1898-99, 18,061,891 pounds, and in 1903, 33,253,500 pounds, valued 
at $3,183,430. It has been said that with direct railroad communica- 
tion from the Pacific coast to the interior the Yaqui River region in 
Sonora alone would supply that demand, and more. 

Cotton is produced on the seaward slopes of both Cordilleras, and 
also in the interior of the country. The great cotton belt is the 
Laguna district, in the State of Coahuila, which has a length of about 
40 miles, is rather narrow, and follows the Nazas River, being almost 
entirely under cultivation. It is distant about 700 miles from the City 
of Mexico, and is in railroad communication therewith. Under fair 
conditions the annual crop will yield $10,000,000 in value. 

The principal cotton-producing districts, other than that named 
above, are: On the Gulf side, the cantons of Cosamaloapam, Tuxtia, 
Tuxpam, Tantoyuca, and Veracruz, in the State of Veracruz. On the 
Pacific slope, from Sonora to Chiapas. In Sonora, the valleys of the 
Yaqui and the Mayo; in Sinaloa, the valley of the Fuerte; in Tepic, 
the valleys of Tepic and Santiago, the fertility of which is astonishing, 
and in Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas the pro- 
duction is great, and could, at a small cost, be made enormous. In the 
central part. Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, and Nuevo Leon are the 
principal producers. 



182 



MEXICO. 



On the coast of the State of Guerrero the tiber measures 37 milli- 
meters in length; in San Pedro and Lerdo, 35 millimeters; in Vera- 
cruz, 34 millimeters; in Gua3unas, 30 millimeters; in Tepic, 31 milli- 
meters; in Colima and Oaxaca, 32 millimeters. 

The methods of cultivation employed are still rather primitive, the 
plow until very recently being little used, and nature being left to 
exercise her agencies unaided. With the intelligent use of improved 
machinery and a knowledge of advanced methods of cultivation Mexico 
need never import an ounce of cotton. There are great advantages 
in the cultivation of Mexican cotton, as the plants continue to bear 
profitable crops without the use of fertilizers on the soil or the renewal 
of seed, which is necessary each year in the United States. 

"The consumption of raw cotton in Mexico" — says the "Mexican 
Economist" — " is estimated to be 100,000 bales annually, 50,000 bales of 
which are produced in the country, principally in the States of Durango 
and Coahuila. Active efforts are being made throughout the Republic 
to increase the acreage of cotton under cultivation, inasmuch as there 
are other places in the Republic exceedingly well suited to its cultiva- 
tion, such, for instance, as the coast lands of the States of Oaxaca and 
Guerrero, and the States of Chiapas, Veracruz, Puebla, and Morelos. 
The price of raw cotton was $31 silver per quintal in 1903. The fiber 
of the Mexican cotton is longer and stronger than that of the cotton 
of the United States, but is thinner, less silky, and not as clean as the 
latter, which fact has given rise to the custom of mixing the American 
cotton with the Mexican, especially in the manufacture of articles of 
fine texture. " 

The production of cotton in Mexico for 1901-2 is given as follows 
by the "Anuario Estadistico" for that period: 22,529,407 kilos, valued 
at $8,629,109; Coahuila being credited with the largest amount, viz, 
14,073,750 kilos, at $6,666,277; then comes Durango with 4,880,500 
kilos, at $1,530,600, and the territory of Tepic with 1,485,800 kilos, 
valued at $144,080. The total production for the last five calendar 
years is given as follows by the same authoritj'^: 



Year. 


Kilos. 


Values. 


1898 


45,525,767 
22,487,517 
21,795,895 
22, 364, 092 
22,529,407 


16, 872, 770 
4, 679, 628 


1899 


1900 


148 773 


1901 


6, 447, 880 
8, 629, 109 


1902 - 








Total 


134, 702, 678 


32, 778, 160 





Cotton weaving and spinning is one of the most promising growing 
industries of Mexico. During the fiscal year 1901-2 there were in the 
countr}^ 93 working factories using 595,728 spindles, 18,222 looms, and 
33 printing machines, consuming 27,628,366 kilos of cotton for the pro- 



CACAO. 183 

duction of 10,428,532 pieces of -woven or printed goods, and 1,879,329 
kilos of yarn, the sales declared being $28,780,000. 

Imports of raw cotton into Mexico in 1901-2 amounted to 6,475,934 
kilos, valued at $1,271,958, as per invoice, and during the first half of 
1903 were 9,475,968 kilos, invoiced at $1,816,418. The share of the 
United States in the raw cotton imports for the calendar year 1902 is 
represented by 14,879,356 kilos, valued at $2,920,789, according to 
official Mexican figures. 

The " Mexican Investor," December 8, 1902, is authority for the state- 
ment that an attempt has been made to utilize in Yucatan two native 
delicate fibers to substitute cotton in many of its uses. The plants 
produce cotton of two classes; the smaller one gives a coffee-colored 
seed and grows and multiplies without special care all the year round; 
its fiber is thicker than that of the common cotton. The seed of the 
other plant is of a light-blue color. This plant requires special culti- 
vation and irrigation; the fiber is finer than the other, and as fine as 
the finest cotton. An agriculturist of San Luis Soyatlan, in the State 
of Jalisco, who first experimented with these two plants, the same 
authority states, has distributed seeds all over the hot lands, for which 
it is most suited. 

Cacao {Theohroma^ in Greek — the food of the gods) is another plant 
indigenous to Mexico. It has been cultivated b}- the aborigines from 
remote times, and from its bean they made their drink chocolatl 
(chocolate), which was considered to have great sustaining virtues, 
and Cortes, speaking of the general adoption of the beverage by his 
soldiers, in his first letter to Charles V says: " He who has drunk his 
cup of chocolate travels a whole day without taking other food." 

Ever since chocolate came into general use in Europe, in the latter 
part of the seventeenth century, the high-grade cacao has been furnished 
by the States of Tabasco and Chiapas. The Mexican home consump- 
tion is very large, 3^et the production does not meet the demand, which 
is ever increasing. 

The cacao requires a warm and moist atmosphere, the best lands 
lying between sea level and 1,600 feet above, in localities protected 
from strong air currents. Although there are many districts in 
Mexico affording the necessary conditions of climate and soil, the cul- 
tivation of the cacao is almost entirely in the hands of the Indians, 
who raise it on a small scale and carry their crops to market, where 
they are bought by merchants, who store them away until a sufficient 
quantity is collected to ship to the large consuming centers. The 
plant begins bearing three or four years after planting, and usually 
gives three crops a j^ear, although in some parts of Chiapas four crops 
have been garnered in a twelvemonth. 



184 MEXICO, 

A Mexican authority thus estimates the cost of establishing and 
maintaining- a cacao plantation for a period of eight years: 

Cost of 100 acres of land $500 

Clearing same for cacao, staking, plahting shade trees, cacao, and corn between 

the rows of the cacao plants, care of corn, and expense of harvesting. 1, 340 

Value of corn crop 1, 200 

Second year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation and of planting, cultivating, and harvest- 
ing corn crop 1, 130 

Value of corn crop 1, 000 

Third year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation, raising last crop of corn, and gathering 

first crop of cacao 1, 600 

Value of corn and cacao 1, 600 

Fourth year: 

Cost of maintaining plantation 1, 444 

300 cargas « of cacao 7, 500 

Fifth year, profits 6, 000 

Sixth year, profits 8, 300 

Seventh year, profits 10, 490 

Eighth year, profits 21, 000 

The plants reach their maximum production the ninth or tenth year, 
and after the twenty-third year their yield diminishes. The trees are 
planted about 400 to the acre, and an authority places the average 
yield of 1,000 trees at 600 pounds. The cacao industry has proven a 
considerable source of wealth to the State of Tabasco, and it is strange 
that investors have not recognized its profitableness. 

It is asserted b}^ good authority that land well adapted to the raising 
of cacao plants can be purchased for about $8 an acre, Mexican money, 
in sections of from 100 to 500 acres. 

As the bean of the plant is extensively used in the .manufacture of 
chocolate, and it is utilized in the making of salves for medical use, 
such as cacao butter, its cultivation offers an inviting field for profitable 
speculation, 

Consul-General Barlow, in his report before quoted, gives a list of 
American investors in Mexico, wherein it appears that there are 4 
firms growing cacao in Tabasco, 1 in Veracruz, 1 in Oaxaca, and 2 in 
Chiapas. Mexican official figures relative to the production of cacao 
during 1901-2 give the total production at 3,428,525 kilos, valued at 
12,703,628. The principal States producing this bean were Tabasco, 
1,869,435 kilos, at $1,551,391, and Chiapas, 1,551,705 kilos, at 
$1,143,182. The other States given are Colima, Michoacan, Guerrero, 
and Oaxaca. For the last five years the total production of the coun- 
try was as follows: 

«The carga here mentioned is equivalent to about 60 pounds. 



RUBBER. 



185 





Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


1898 


1,362,543 
1,032,437 
1,973,362 
1,792,988 
3, 428, 525 


81, 385, 267 


1899 


689,907 


1900 


1, 709, 857 


1901 


1 , 622, 844 


1902 - - - 


2, 703, 628 








Total 


9,589,845 


8, 111, 503 







Rubber. — The rubber tree grows wild in many parts of Mexico; it 
abounds in the warm latitudes of the States of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, 
Tabasco, Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Oolima, Michoacan, and the 
Territory of Tepic. Except in isolated cases, the cultivation of the 
tree has not been seriously undertaken. The natives, not appreciat- 
ing the value of so important an element in the arboreal vegetation of 
the countrj^, have been accustomed for many years to extract the 
milk from the tree, boil it, and take the rubber made into balls to the 
market without any further preparation or treatment. The natives 
also chopped down and destroyed great numbers of these trees. 

In the Tehuantepec region there are said to be 1,200 square miles 
of territory susceptible of growing the rubber tree. There it is valu- 
able not only because of its product but also for the good results it 
gives in furnishing shade to coffee and cacao trees. The tree begins 
to yield when 6 or 7 years old, But it is not considered advisable to 
tap until it is 9 or 10 years of age. If the tapping is properly done 
(once a year, in October and November, for instance) it will produce 
for twenty-five years. It produces 1 pound of gum when 10 years 
old and 2i to 3 pounds when 15 years of age. 

The cost of planting and care for the first year is from 4^ to 5 
cents, and 1^ to 1\ cents for cultivation in the subsequent years. On 
the Isthmus the gum sells for 40 to 60 cents gold per pound, on the 
plantations. 

Romero states'* that the milk yield of each tree six years after 
planting is estimated at 6 pounds, which, reduced to rubber, loses 
about 65 per cent, and he calculates that a plantation of 100,000 trees 
would produce a net profit at the end of six years, at the prices then 
prevailing (1871), of 1110,880. 

The best climate for the culture of the rubber tree is the hottest, 
and the best land the dampest and the nearest to the seashore or on 
the low-lying banks of rivers. The tree requires but little labor for 
its cultivation. An economical method of growing it is to plant the 
trees as shade for coffee and cacao plantations, rubber itself not 
requiring the shade, but, on the contrary, experience in Mexico has 
demonstrated that trees growing in the sun are healthier and better 
than when protected from its influence. The prevailing opinion 

« Coffee and India Rubber Culture in Mexico, p. 382. New York, 1898. 



186 MEXICO. 

among the agTiculturists of jSIexico seems to be that 2 to 2i meters 
from tree to tree on every side is the proper spacing in planting rub- 
ber trees. TJie hardiness of the plant greatly simplifies its culture, 
thus rendering it proportionately cheap. In the low, hot, damp lands 
most favorable to its growth the fertility of the soil is so great that 
the necessary labor may be said to consist solel}^ in weeding the plan- 
tations, and as the rubber plant possesses a vitality superior to that of 
weeds or of any other kind of vegetation, in proportion as the trees 
grow larger the necessity for weeding becomes less imperative. 
Another point in determining the success of a plantation is the method 
employed in tapping the trees. This operation must be performed 
very carefully, so as not to injure the woody structure beyond the 
bark, nor must the bark be separated in two portions, thus isolating 
the upper and lower sections of "the tree and preventing the ascent of 
the sap. 

United States Consul W. W. Canada, at Veracruz, under date of 
January 11, 1901, forwarded the following important information, 
taken from Mexican sources, to the Department of Commerce and 
Labor of the United States, which is published in Consular Report 
No. 1875, of February 12, 1904: 

"There are more than 1,500 species of rubber plants or trees, and 
all of them are intertropical plants. The Mexican rubber tree is of 
the family of Castilloa elastica and is indigenous to the soil. Those 
desiring to engage in the cultivation of rubber should carefully look 
into the following points and satisfactorily settle them before investing. 

" What is the most favorable climate and what qualities should the 
soil possess to insure the profitable development of the tree? 

"Unfortunately it is impossible to answer definitely and conclu- 
sivel}^ the greater number of the questions which follov/; we can give 
only the results of our personal experience on a small plantation and 
such other information as we have collected from various sources. 
We could answer the preceding question perhaps in this manner: 

"What is the best method to pursue when commencing a planta- 
tion — plant direct from the seed, transplant the young trees, or plant 
slips or cuttings ? 

"The cheapest and most convenient method is to transplant the 
young trees from a nursery, an indespensable adjunct that should 
always be proportionate in size to that of a plantation about to be 
cleared for planting. The young trees should have a height of at 
least 31.5 inches before this can be done successfully. Planting the 
seed where the tree is expected to grow is not advisable on account of 
the greater labor in keeping the soil clear of other growths and conse- 
quent expenses incurred. Planting slips or cuttings from trees should 
never be attempted, as 90 per cent of them will be lost. 



miBBER. 187 

"Should the plants have sun or shade? At what distance from each 
other should trees be set out ? 

"These points have been in controversy b}^ all authorities on the 
subject. Some believe that the ra^-s of the sun are beneficial, others 
that they are injurious, to the plant. However, the opinion of com- 
petent persons is that a tree exposed to the rays of the sun develops 
quickl}'^ and produces a larger quantitv of rubber, but will also rapidl}^ 
deteriorate, and it is believed that within three or four years after the 
tree commences to produce the plantation will be exhausted. Those 
who maintain that shade is necessary to insure best results claim that 
the plant will not cease to produce or exhaust itself in less time than 
from twenty to thirty years. Only practical experience will solve this 
question, and this has demonstrated the fact that the rays of the sun 
are necessary for the natural development of the tree, but trees that 
have already attained a good height give very little product when so 
exposed. They must have shade, and such as is given by large forest 
trees left at convenient distances from the rubber trees. Therefore, 
when clearing the land for a rubber plantation a sufficient number of 
trees of large growth should not be cut down, but should be left stand- 
ing at regular distances to secure the necessary shade for the rubber 
trees. 

"The proper distance at which trees ought to be set out from each 
other is another much-disputed point, and there is no general rule for 
I the guidance of the planter. Trees planted at a distance of 10 feet 
apart become dwarfed; the trunk thickens and some of them are very 
slow in attaining to the perfection of others that receive air and nour- 
ishment from the soil in abundance. When trees are planted closer 
than 25 feet apart the loss to the plantation is equivalent to 50 per 
cent. Some of the trees develop vigorousl}^, while others remain weak 
and dwarfed and the foliage turns yellow, influenced, as it were, by 
the larger plants near them. 

"What is the nature of the labor to be performed while the trees 
are growing? 

"After the preliminary clearing of the land and also after the young 
trees have been set out, great care must be exercised to keep the soil 
free from weeds and other plants. All these should be carefully 
removed and the ground raked over several times during the first 
year and at least once a year afterwards. Some authorities advise 
cutting off the top of the tree when a height of 32 feet 8 inches has 
been reached. This is believed to cause the trunk of the tree to 
thicken, as well as the bark. Nature produces the milk in the bark, 
and in this the sought-f or source of profit is found. The planter must 
apply all his intelligence and give all his attention to the plants until 
they are fully developed, and it should not be lost sight of that the 
cultivation of the rubber tree is something entirely new to the agricul- 



188 MEXICO. 

turist. No one has as 3^et said the last word on the subject. We are 
yet in the dark, or in the epocli of study and observation, and only 
the intelligent planter can possibly discover the secrets of nature. 

"After planting, how much time will elapse before a rubber tree 
will commence to produce? 

" Here we have another disputed question. Some say twenty years, 
others fifteen years, and still others ten j^ears, but the majority seem 
to agree that at the age of eight years the tree will be in a condition 
of development to permit of its being tapped for the first time, if the i,: 
soil, the climate, and the growth of the tree have been good; but if r 
either of these elements has been unfavorable the probability will be 
that a longer time must elapse before tapping can take place. And, \ 
again, practical persons have assured us that under favorable condi- > 
tions a tree may be fully developed at the age of six years. 

"What is the annual production of a tree and what is the best 
method for extracting the rubber without impoverishing the plant? 

"This question, no less important than the others, is also the cause of > 
much controversy and contradictory opinions. Some agriculturists . 
believe that a tree may be tapped without injury once every two ( 
months, and made to jdeld at each operation 6 pounds of rubber, mak- 
ing 36 pounds per year for each tree. Meanwhile, others believe that 
the tree should be tapped only once a year to produce 6 pounds. Still 
others think it more advantageous to the planter to extract the juice 
once every two years, believing that the production will be greater 
than by tapping ever}^ two months. Among those who are posted it 
is agreed that a tree with a trunk of from 15 to 18 inches in diameter 
will produce at each tapping 6 pounds of rubber. 

"The milk of the rubber tree contains 56 per cent of water and 44 
per cent of rubber. The method of tapping the tree is an important 
matter, for upon this depends the success of the plantation. We will 
say nothing about the barbarous practice of cutting down the trees. 
Generally speaking, there are two wa3^s of extracting the juice. It 
may be done b}'^ making a spiral cut in the bark of the tree to a height 
of about 30 feet, being very careful not to cut the tree itself, for in 
that case it will be likely to die. Another method — and it seems to us 
the most rational one — is to make an incision nearly around and at the 
foot of the tree; the milk will descend by its own gravity without the 
bark being injured by much cutting. When the juice has ceased to 
run, cover the cut very carefully with day. 

"The cost of planting rubber varies materially with the methods 
pursued in setting out the trees. If we accept as correct 25 feet as the 
distance at which trees should be planted from each other, and this 
method is to be preferred, 144 trees may be set out to each 2i acres, 
approximately. For planting 10,000 trees about 200 acres will be 



RUBBER. 189 

equired. One man is said to be able to extract the milk from 20 to 25 
rees daily. The month of May is preferred for this operation." 
Dr. W. S. Cockrell, who for twelve jesus has been interested in 
oriculture in tropical Mexico, is authority for the following informa- 
ion on matters not fully covered by the preceding abstract: 
1 ' ' The conditions pertaining to and methods of planting india rubber — 
Vastilloa elastica^ the commercial rubber plant of Mexico — are very 
mportant features which have received hitherto inadequate attention. 
t is by no means a complex subject; on the contrary, by observing a 
ew primitive and essential features, this most important industry may 
le conducted to a most successful and profitable result. 

^'"Locality. — As a general rule, with a very few notable exceptions, 
ubber should be planted south of latitude 20^ N. and below an alti- 
ude of 1,000 feet above sea level, where the annual rainfall exceeds 
jtOO inches and where a large amount of humidity is precipitated as 
lew during the dry season. 

"'The exceptions are in protected valleys or locations within above- 
jiientioned latitude at elevations of several thousand feet where the 
jiurrounding mountains ward off the cold winds and preserve equable 
llimate. Such locations do exist, but are rare and limited in area. 

" Soil. — This is an all-important factor, and in a great measure con- 
Irols results in direct ratio to its adaptability, fertility, and depth, 
kubber will produce a luxuriant tree in almost any soil where the 
Conditions of locality are favorable, but such a tree does not neces- 
mrily imply a profitable producer. 

" By adaptability is meant a rich, alluvial, virgin soil, which is 
ilways of the requisite fertility. Its value as a rubber soil depends 
largely upon its depth or the subsoil, which factor gains its essentiality 
from the fact that the rubber tree is primarily a taproot feeder. The 
taproot is the perpendicular and principal root which penetrates the 
ground in relative proportion to the height of the tree. From the 
3ollateral or superficial roots sufficient strength may be drawn to 
maintain a luxuriant tree, but a well-nourished taproot is necessary 
to yield a- bountiful supply of rubber milk, from which commercial 
rubber is extracted. 

I "Recently, by good fortune, a landslide was observed which dem- 
onstrated a rubber tree about 7 inches in diameter 3 feet from the 
surface of the ground with a taproot slightly more than 1^ inches in 
diameter 18 feet below the surface. It would have been interesting 
to know how much deeper this root extended, but circumstances were 
such that it was not feasible to ascertain. This demonstration was 
only confirmatory of much previous investigation extending- over a 
number of years, all proving beyond a doubt that it is the taproot 
that furnished the excess supply of rubber .which may be annually 



190 MEXICO. 

extracted without detriment to the tree. Many trees not producin*,^ a 
remunerative quantit}^ have been found invariably to be without a tap- 
root, and no tree with a normal taproot has been found that did not 
produce an abundant and protitable supply. To enumerate a great 
number of instances, amply conclusive, would occupy more space than 
allowable and only confirm above deductions. 

'•''Method of 2)1 anting. — No less important than either of the forego- 
ing-factors is the method of planting. In order to secure a full com- 
plement of root supply, rubber seeds should be planted, at proper 
distance, in ground previously staked to indicate where the trees are 
to grow. From three to live seeds should be planted at each stake, so 
that if the rains wash any of the seeds out, or if at some stakes all fail to 
sprout, they may be easily and safely supplied from those where all, or 
the majority, have sprouted by removing the small plants 2 or 3 inches 
high, with proper implements, to supply the deficiencies. This may 
be done without jeopardj^ to the plants, and after all deficiencies have 
been supplied all but one plant should be removed from each place. 
In this way a very complete stand can nearly always be gotten the first 
year, and the deficiencies that may occur can be supplied by a repeti- 
tion of seed planting the second year or by transplanting ver}^ small 
plants with roots intact. Transplanting from nursery plants of such 
a size as would necessitate injury to the taproot is to be carefully 
avoided, likewise planting from slips or cuttings, either of which may 
produce a thrifty looking tree of small productive capacity. 

"There is ample reason for limiting the distance of planting to a 
maximum of 8 feet from tree to tree, and closer planting has been 
demonstrated to be successful. The object of close planting is to 
maintain continuous shade on the trunks of the trees, which is neces- 
sary to grow a soft bark, through which the milk will easily percolate, 
and this area Avill yield ample support to the tree in that the depth of 
the taproot is the real source of supply. 

"A high state of cultivation, which in tropical countries implies 
keeping the ground absolutely clean and free from weeds and grass, is 
necessary, as there is no plant more sensitive or that more manifestly 
resents an intrusion than rubber," 

The "India Rubber World", February 1, 1903, is authority for the 
following information in regard to the progress made in rubber plant- 
ing in Mexico by 26 companies: 

The total number of trees planted b}^ the 26 companies, by years, is 
as follows: 



1897 - 5,200 

1898 21,700 

1899 370, 785 

1900 952, 742 

Total acreage, 11,117, 



1901 -... 1,101,678 

1902 2, 991, 000 

Total.-.- 5,443,105 



RUBBER. 191 

ii 

j The average number of trees planted per acre in 1902 by 13 com- 
panies was 100, 600, 196, 1,000, 200, 820, 800, 250, 800, 587, 2,000, 600, 
pll, respectively. 

I These 13 companies report a total planting of 2,671,000 trees in 
1902 on 4,113 acres, or an average of 650 trees per acre. The prac- 
tice is general of close planting, both to allow for failures and with 
[the idea of extracting some rubber from the surplus trees when they 
'lave grown so as to make their removal necessar3^ While some of 
ohe companies have tried various methods of planting as regards 
shade, generall}'^ one plan has been adhered to in each case, and further 
planting, as a rule, will be done under the same method as in the past. 
The distribution of the total planting to January, 1903, was as follows: 



How planted. 



Number of 
trees. 



."n the open 

n the open and semishade 

n semishade 

n the shade 

>^ot stated 



3, 202, 920 

1,117,000 

1,019,185 

4,000 

100, 000 



Total 



5, 443, 105 



Ten companies planted in the open, 2 in the open and semishade, 11 
n semishade, 1 in shade altogether, and 2 did not report. 

Nine companies planted from nurseries and at stake, 12 from nurs- 
jries principally, and 3 at stake alone. 

In regard to transplanting from nurseries and planting seeds at 
stake, while the practice of the different companies varies, in most 
?ases the plan adopted in the past will be continued. The total plant- 
ng has been distributed as follows: 



How distributed. 



Number of 
trees. 



From nursery and at stake. 

From nursery alone 

it stake alone 

>^ot stated 

Total 



2, 075, 400 

1,895,705 

372, 000 

100, 000 



4, 443, 105 



! To give an idea of the extent of the preparation made for future 
planting, it may be mentioned that 19 of the 26 companies reported 
tiaving in nurseries at the end of the season a total of 11,462,000 young 
plants, in numbers ranging from 7,000 to 2,000,000 each. Two com- 
panies reported no nurseries, having completed planting, and 6 made 
Qo report. 

The report of Consul-General Barlow, bof ore mentioned, gives at 45 
tha number of American firms engaged in rubber planting in Mexico 
as follows: Chiapas, 12; Oaxaca, 10; Puebla, 1; Tabasco; 2; Vera- 
cruz, 19, and Tepic, 1, 



192 MEXICO. 

Mexican official figures give the followiDg total production of rub- 
ber for the last five years: 



Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. ■ 


1898 


120, 916 
606, 129 
197,560 
187, 052 
118, 293 


$227, .sfl 
272, 82^ 
245, 316 
344, 145 
279,675 


1899 . . . 


1900 


1901 


1902 




Total 


1,229,950 


1, 369, 328 





For 1901-2, Chiapas is credited with the largest production, viz, 
94,643 kilos, at $257,160, and Tabasco with 17,050 kilos, at $15,451. 
The other States mentioned are Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosi, and 
the Territory of Tepic. Exports of rubber for the year 1902 are 
officially given by a Mexican authority" at 178,668 kilos, valued at 
$331,096, the United States being credited with 136,923 kilos, at 
$254,565; France with 23,764 kilos, at $41,715; Germany, 17,474, at 
$34,296; and Colombia and Holland with 400 and 107 kilos, respec- 
tively. 

Chicle. — One of the principal productions of Mexico is the gum 
known as chicle., which exudes from the chico-zapote tree, found grow- 
ing wild along the Coatzacoalcos, Corte, Coachapa, and Uspanapa 
rivers. The product of this tree is usually gathered by the Indians in 
the forests along these rivers, and no important attempt has been made 
toward growing the tree as an industr}^, although the gum forms a 
very large proportion of the exports of the country. The cultivation 
is inexpensive, being not greater than 1^ cents per tree annually, and 
it would seem that where one chewing-gum factory in the United 
States had an output in the year 1896 of 1,000,000,000 pieces of chew- 
ing gum, all made from the Mexican chicle., the industry would be a 
remunerative one. The trees should be planted not more than 400 to 
the acre, at a cost of 5i cents each. They mature after reaching the 
age of 8 or 10 years, when they are from 12 to 15 inches in diameter 
and in a condition to tap. Each tree yields from 5 to 6 pounds of the 
merchantable gum, at a cost of 8 to 10 cents per pound to extract it, 
and sells for an average of 50 cents per pound at Minatitlan and (Coat- 
zacoalcos, on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 

In 1898-99 the United States imported from Mexico chicle gum to 
the amount of 2,445,061 pounds, valued at $363,051 gold, and in 1903 
the importation of this gum amounted to $954,389 gold, chiefly from 
Mexico. 

The total production of the various gums and resins, except rubber, 
for the year 1901-2 was as follows, according to the "Anuario Esta- 

« Importacion ' y Exportacion de la Republica Mexicana en 1902. Secretaria de 
Fomento, Colonizacion 6 Industria. Mexico, 1903. 



VANILLA. 



193 



Istico:" Chicle gum, 439,763 kilos, valued at $429,570; "mesquite" 
29,687 kilos, at $4,458, and "copal" resin, 54,912 kilos, at 



'um 



130,752. The production of these gums for the last five years is given 
>y the same authority, as follows: 



Year. 



Chicle. 



Mesqtuite. 



Copal. 



L899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

Total 



Kilos. 
1, 005, 648 

600, 675 
2, 132, 247 
1,897,076 

439, 753 



6, 075, 399 



Value. 

1685, 397 

502, 471 

1,432,659 

1,106,554 

429, 670 



Kilos. 
15,765 

250, 752 
25, 316 
37, 236 
29, 687 



4,156,651 



358,756 



Value. 

S6, 014 
9,523 
9,443 
6,355 
4,458 



Kilos. 

9,079 

247, 868 

125, 167 

15, 172 

54, 912 



35, 793 



452, 198 



Value. 
$2, 185 

9,062 
27, 196 

4,429 
30, 762 



73,624 



Exports of chicle during 1902 are officially quoted at 1,759,578 kilos, 
valued at $1,270,466, the United States being the only buyer, while 
"other gums and resins" are given at 29,208 kilos, valued at $9,519, 
exported to the United States and Germany, the former being credited 
with 27,073 kilos, worth $9,219. 

Vanilla. — As far back as the time of the Aztecs the vanilla bean was 
used to spice the chocolate. The Spaniards, quick to see the value of 
vanilla as an article of export, began the cultivation of the aromatic 
pod. For a long time the former province of Veracruz supplied the 
whole world with vanilla until the Bourbon Islands and Java waged 
[competition against it. 

France is the leading market for this product; Germany, England, 
and the United States follow in the order named. Mexico furnishes 
over two-thirds of the vanilla beans imported by the United States — 
140,000 pounds a year, worth $640,000. 

The vanilla of Mexico is the superior of all other varieties as to 
aroma, and the pod yields a much larger quantity of essential oils. In 
the markets of the United States it commands two or three times as 
high a price as that of other countries. 

Usually the plant begins to yield thirty-nine months after planting. 
It thrives best in the danip, not muddy or swampy, lands of the Torrid 
Zone, shade being a necessity; and yields its product during ten to 
twelve years. The average yield is from 10 to 20 pods to the vine, 
artificial fertilization of the flower producing much more. The culti- 
vation of vanilla has many advantages, among others that corn and 
similar products may be cultivated in conjunction with it, and on 
coffee plantations as a secondary product. 

In Mexico the pods are sold by the thousand. The cost for clearing 
and planting an acre of ground is estimated at $39, and the cultiva- 
tion, including the artificial pollenizing of the flower, amounts to 
about $9 a year for each acre. The expense of gathering, curing, and 
preparing the pods for market is about $26.50 per thousand. Of 
recent years green vanilla has been selling at Papautla, a canton of 
509a— 04 13 



194 MEXICO. 

the State of Veracruz, where the best quality grows, at prices ranging 
from $80 upward a thousand pods. In 1896 it sold for $146 a 
thousand. 

Vanilla grows in the States of Veracruz, Oaxaca, Chiapas, Tabasco, 
Michoacan, and Jalisco, also on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where 
there are two species growing in a wild state. 

According to Mexican official statistics, the production of the vanilla 
bean for the last five years is estimated at the following figures: 



Kilos. 



Value. 



1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 



41,794 
18,941 
14, 863 
127, 681 
6.219 



81,628,630 

868,967 

472, 666 

1,372,462 

22,289 



Total. 



209, 498 



4,365,014 



Exports of vanilla for 1902 are officially estimated by Mexican 
authorities at 51,492 kilos, valued at $1,145,904, of which amount the 
United States took 47,642 kilos, with a valuation of $1,027,774, the 
other exporters being France, Canada, and Italy, in the order given. 
Consul-General Barlow reports that there are 12 American firms in 
the State of Veracruz engaged in the cultivation of the bean. 

Sugar cane. — The cultivation of sugar cane was among the agricul- 
tural improvements introduced into Mexico by the Spaniards. It 
appears that Cortes had two plantations in Izcalpam, and these were 
followed by others until in 1553 sugar was exported from Mexico to 
Spain and Peru. The cultivation of the cane was then limited to the 
" Intendencias " of Guanajuato, Guadalajara, Puebla, Mexico, and 
Veracruz. Toward the end of the eighteenth century the industry 
received a great impetus on account of the poor crops of Santo 
Domingo and other cane-producing countries. The increase in the 
development of the industry, however, was not so great as had been 
anticipated. All the coasts of the Republic, the entire tierra caliente 
or hot lands, and a great part of the temperate region are adapted to 
the cultivation of sugar cane. 

The cane, especially on the Gulf slope, grows to an enormous size, 
and does not need regrowing for ten years at least. No plowing or 
irrigating is needed. Clearing, planting, and cultivation does not cost 
$45 per acre, and the cane is ready to cut in ten months after plant- 
ing. The plant produces from 30 to 35 tons of cane per acre, yield- 
ing 20 to 25 tons of juice, containing from 15 to 16 per cent of crys- 
tallizable sugar, and a plantation well cared for will yield for thirty 
years. The process most in vogue only extracts about 6 per cent of 
this sugar; it is asserted that by the use of improved machinery an 



SDGAE CANE. 195 

acre could be made to yield 3 tons of refined sugar. At Suchilapam 
and adjacent places four canes have yielded a gallon of juice. 

It is claimed '^ that in the States of Morelos, Puebla, Michoacan, 
Jalisco, and Colima the yield of cane to the acre may be reasonably 
counted upon at 45 tons, while in Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas as 
much as 60 tons are obtained, the general average in the northern 
part of Veracruz, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo Leon being 40 tons. The 
same authoritiy quotes an estimate, which is claimed to be very con- 
servative, of the results that can be obtained in a 500-acre plantation, 
the net product of which is estimated at $188,425 per annum, while 
the approximate cost of machinery, buildings, etc., for a sugar factory 
to take off the crop in one hundred days is given at from $100,000 to 
$300,000 Mexican currency. 

In regard to the sugar production of Mexico, the following extracts 
are taken from an interesting paper on the subject by Mr. Alfred F. 
Gray:^ 

"Mexico is in many respects an ideal sugar-producing country. In 
many parts of the Republic the climate and soil are favorable to the 
growth of the sugar cane, and not only is the cane itself very rich in 
saccharine matter, but replanting every year is not necessary, as it is 
in Louisiana; for example, as many as eight or ten crops being gath- 
ered in Mexico before new seed need be planted. There is no reason, 
so far as natural conditions are concerned, why Mexico in certain parts 
should not rank with Cuba as a sugar producer, and that she is not 
yet an important factor in the world's market as a producer rather 
than a consumer is due to the fact that production has barely caught 
up with home consumption. 

"Though the Mexican sugar plantations best known to the outside 
world are in the lowlands along the Gulf coast, notably in Veracruz, 
sugar is successfully raised in many States of the Republic, including 
Tabasco, Jalisco, Morelos, Puebla, Sinaloa, Guerrero, Yucatan, Michoa- 
can, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Colima, and others. These plantations 
are owned and have been owned for generations by old Mexican fam- 
ilies who possess immense tracts of land and have had an abundance 
of cheap peon labor. Their mills were primitive, though the cost of 
installing them in the inaccessible portions of the interior and unde- 
veloped States was prohibitive for all except men of wealth, as wealth 
was reckoned in Mexico some years ago, and this same lack of trans- 
portation facilities added much to the cost of the product anywhere 
outside of the local market of each plantation. As a consequence the 
country's production of sugar has heretofore been far short of the 
demand. 

«The Hacendado Mexicano's sugar report, 1899-1900, p. 3. Mexico City. 
6 "The Banker and Miner of Mexico." July 1, 1903. 



196 MEXICO. 

"These conditions, and the further fact that the Government, in 
pursuance of its general plan of protecting home industries, placed an 
import tax on sugar of 15 cents (Mexican) per kilo, or 2.6Y cents per 
pound in our currency, made the sugar industr}^ a very profitable one, 
and in the recent awakening of the country to new life and activity 
much new capital has been invested in sugar plantations. 

" A large part of this investment has been made by local capital. 
But there are many Americans who have made investments in Mexican 
sugar plantations individually and in plantation companies.'* Several 
Louisiana planters, having got under cultivation practically all the 
available home* territory, have extended their operations . into the 
cheaper Mexican country, and a number of companies for the exploi- 
tation of sugar plantations have been formed in Ohio, Indiana, and 
other western States in the past few years and are now beginning to 
produce. 

"It appears, however, that there has not yet been established in 
Mexico what is considered in New York to be a regular sugar refinery. 
There are many mills and small factories, the primitive concerns of 
the old plantations in the more remote districts, and there have lately 
been built a number of modern factories that have cost from $300,000 
to $500,000 in United States currency, which produce raw or partially 
refined sugar from the cane. But a refinery, as we use the word, 
means a plant to manufacture the many grades of refined sugar out of 
raw cane. 

"The increased production due to the new enterprises in this line is 
having its effect on the Mexican sugar market. Their output has 
very materially increased the total production of the country. In the 
season of 1899-1900 this amounted to 78,000 tons of 2,240 pounds each; 
in 1900-1901 it was 95,000 tons; in 1901-2 it was 103,110 tons, and the 
last crop, 1902-3, is estimated at 115,000 tons. Naturally the price 
has fallen in consequence of this increased supply, as the consumption 
has not correspondingly increased. In Mexico the price asked for 
first sugars in carload lots last January was $2.75 to $3 Mexican cur- 
rency, per arroba of 25 pounds, which is equivalent to 4.28 cents to 
4.70 cents per pound in United States currenc}^, and in May the price 
had fallen to the equivalent of 3.61 cents United States currency, per 
pound. 

"This decline in the Mexican market is the more remarkable because 
at the same time the prices of sugar in the markets of the world were 
steady, with advances in some parts. In other words, the production 
of sugar in Mexico is approaching the point where it will satisfy the 

« Consul-General Barlow reports 21 American firms engaged in sugar planting and 
manufacture, as follows: Chiapas, 1; Yucatf'in, 1; Lower California, 2; Oaxaca, 2; 
Tabasco, 2; and Veracruz, 13. 



SUGAR CANE. 



197 



needs of the country, while the rest of the world is in need of new 
sources of supply. The dividing wall between the two markets is the 
protective import duty Mexico has set upon imported sugar. But 
Mexico is beginning to climb over that wall, as is evidenced by the 
i-ecent shipment of 25,000 bags of sugar from Veracruz to Liverpool 
md New York. 

"Mexico must now be classed among the countries which export 
^ugar, and the quantity which, she will ship to foreign countries will 
ioubtless steadily increase. The assessment of 2.67 cents (United 
States currency) per pound duty on any sugar which might be imported 
is a great protection to the sugar producers and enables them to main- 
tain a price for sugar sold for local consumption sufficiently high to 
Dffset any small loss which might result from the export of part of 
their crops to foreign countries. For instance, in case their local 
price should decline to 3 cents per pound, they could well afford to 
sell 66 pounds of their production at this figure, and accept as low as 
li cents per pound on 34 pounds shipped out of the countrj^, thus 
making an average of 2.49 cents per pound net at the factory, which 
jvvould show a good profit on sugar which cost li to 2 cents per pound 
'to produce. 

"As labor in Mexico is abundant and cheap, and much land suitable 
for the cultivation of sugar cane is still available, the sugar industry 
of the country may be expected to extend to large proportions, and 
the country offers a desirable field for the conservative investor who 
possesses abundant capital and the necessary technical knowledge of 
sugar production." 

The total production of sugar cane during the year 1901-2, according 
ito the "Anuario Estadistico," amounted to 2,745,686,000 kilos, valued at 
te,872,033, the following being the States producing over 20,000,000 
kilos: 



state. 


Kilos. 


Value. 




20,716,931 

23, 585, 868 

28, 625, 360 

41,696,422 

73,303,803 

105, 575, 770 

166, 294, 750 

176, 175, 400 

238, 340, 187 

372, 835, 200 

558,323,900 


$213, 896 




269, 409 


YucatAn 


345, 120 




1,272,699 




830, 202 


Nuevo Leon 


599, 130 


Jalisco.. 


3,360,895 




499, 828 




2,424,276 


Tepic 


350, 880 


Puebla 


6,102,472 







198 



MEXICO. 



The production of sugar and molasses for the same period, accord- 
ing to the same authority, is shown in the following table: 



state. 



White sugar. 



Brown sugar (Pano- 
cha). 



Molasses. 



California 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Durango 

Guanajuati) 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

•Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoaciiii 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Querfitaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonera 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 



494, 810 

30, 000 

, 802, 750 

553, 049 



106, 201 
5,000 
286, 200 
198, 145 
953, 445 
546, 035 
13, 900 
368, 079 
983, 771 



123, 000 
,150,000 



809, 198 
10, 000 
556, 900 
318, 404 



Total 82, 307, 887 



Value. 



179, 889 

6,000 

290, 940 

133,716 



226, 868 

2,000 

1,795,433 

40, 911 

1, 907, 357 

8, 034, 153 

2,780 

326, 873 

1,478,864 



31,980 
1,175,000 



131,839 

2,000 

371, 518 

1,065,639 



Kilos. 

1,640,140 

36, 000 

690, 416 

235, 450 

3, 856, 608 

736, 526 

95, 000 

1,659,874 

4, 993, 128 

5, 600, 251 

460, 389 

8, 748, 090 

517, 500 

8,431,325 

2, 888, 948 

11,875,425 

72, 200 

4,006,396 

2, 506, 025 

139, 689 

793, 840 

931,173 

686, 420 

3, 528, 700 

3, 027, 200 



17, 103, 760 



68, 046, 713 



Value. 

S180, 090 

10, 583 

95, 976 

29,164 

370, 108 

93, 359 

9,000 

137,941 

408, 179 

523, 917 

53, 109 

1,025,502 

56, 596 

900, 942 

310, 366 

1,543,567 

7,020 

264,168 

365, 326 

30, 473 

62, 005 

73, 512 

66, 803 

280, 296 

243, 636 



Kilos. 

1,000 

1,853,850 

30, 280 

88, 400 

1,925,551 



209, 290 

1,841,348 

22, 130 



7,141,628 



47,210,630 



Value. 

8160 

113,219 

3,039 

20, 916 

109,030 



590, 159 


26,661 


600, 000 


60,000 


2, 369, 640 


231,737 


313, 700 


23, 930 


3,607,532 


168,156 


22,327,279 


944, 743 


113, 750 


35, 407 


6,408,068 


670,425 


3,596,600 


122,192 


200, 000 


2,000 


420 


42 


236,200 


35,676 


600 


300 


984,833 


32,664 



8,365 

136,260 

1,328 



2,735,940 



Rum from sugar cane is given for the same period at 358,185 hecto- 
liters, estimated at $1,028,616, the total production for the last five 
years being, in round numbers, 3,000,000 hectoliters, at $50,000,000. 

TIeniquen. — Chief among the numberless fiber plants produced by 
Mexico is the heniquen {Agave rigida)^ also called sisal grass or hemp, 
the natural home of which is the Peninsula of Yucatan. It belongs to 
the Maguey {Agave) family, and was called metl by the Aztecs, who 
from time immemorial used it as an article of food, the leaves being 
utilized for roofing, the fiber for weaving, and the juice for the prepa- 
ration of a drink called octli^ the pulque of to-day. 

There are several species of the plant, known by Maya names, and 
which require little or no cultivation and but small outlay. 

The production of this fiber in 1901-2 is officially given as 54,597,500 
kilos, valued at $16,937,809, and for the last five years at the following 
figures: 



Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


1898 . 


67,312,462 
118,872,440 
87, 613, 966 
81, 677, 698 
54,597,500 


$15, 351, 233 


1899 


33, 227, 203 


1900 


18, 262, 786 


1901 


22,041,825 


1902 - - 


16, 937, 809 








Total 


410,074,066 


105,820,856 





The condition of the heniquen industry in Yucatan in 1901-2 is given 
as follows by United States Consul E. H. Thompson at Progreso, in 
a report made to the Department of State of the United States: 



FIBER. 



199 



The output of the Yucatan fiber for the ten years ended December 

:l, 1901, was: 

Each bale weighs approximately 400 pounds. A bale of hemp at present prices is worth 884 Mexican. 
The Mexican dollar is worth about 40i cents gold.] 



Year. 


Bales. 


892 . 


Number. 
353,525 
355, 123 
373, 883 
381,504 
397, 163 
419,975 


893 


894 


895 


896 


897 . . 






4, 163, 276 



The output for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1902, was: 



Month. 



Bales. 



Weight. 



Value. 



Mexican 
currency. 



United 

States 

currency. 



1901. 
ruly 

August 

September 

October 

.'^^ovember 

December 

1902 

fanuary 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June 

Total 



Number. 
64,460 
48, 726 
44, 634 
32, 455 
40, 328 
34, 747 



45, 998 
38, 052 
60, 915 
61,887 
50,547 
41, 559 



Tons. 
10, 319. 7 
7, 988. 6 
7,271.9 
5,295.7 
6, 342. 3 
5, 515. 1 



7, 355. 1 
5,889.2 

9. 712. 7 

9. 769. 8 
7, 956. 7 
6, 688. 4 



SI, 960, 737 
1,917,277 
2, 327, 017 
1,725,912 
2, 377, 077 
2, 126, 960 



2, 726, 792 
2, 334, 179 
3, 496, 591 
4, 469, 689 
3, 433, 308 
2, 662, 344 



S841, 156 
822, 512 
998, 290 
720, 416 
1,019,766 
912,466 



1,169,794 
1, 001, 363 
1, 500, 038 
1, 917, 497 
1, 472, 909 
1, 142, 246 



564, 308 



90, 005. 3 



31,557,888 



13, 538, 343 



The "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal" for 1901-2 estimates the total 
exports of raw henequen at 91,944,355 kilos, with a valuation of 
$29,209,515, while during the first six months of 1902-3 the same 
publication for such period gives the following figures: 37,510,884 
kilos, at $15,030,217. 

Ixtle. — The ixtle, or maguey manso {Agave ixtle)^ is another impor- 
tant fiber, imported into the United States as Tampico fiber, for the 
manufacture of paper, and other industries. The quantity of ixtle 
produced by Mexico in 1901-2 is estimated at 12,483,662 kilos, with a 



valuation of $1,706,892. Coahuila is the largest producer, followed 
by San Luis Potosi and Oaxaca. The production of this fiber has 
been on the increase for the last five years, as shown by the follow- 
ing table: 


: Year. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


1898 


8,263,359 
8, 354, 353 
8,474,194 
9,639,867 
12,483,662 


8693 189 


1899 


808, 621 


1900 


961 769 


1901 


1,082,617 


1902.... 


1 706 892 


Total 




47,215,435 


5 253 088 













200 MEXICO. 

The exports of raw ixtle during 1901-2 are thus estimated by the 
"Boletin de Estadistica" for the same period, 12,475,361 kilos, at 
11,745,077, and for the first half of 1902-3 at the following figures, 
8,646,059 kilos, at $1,465,950. 

Other fibers. — There are many other fiber plants in the country, 
such as cotton, already mentioned; the angu {Hibiscus escidentus), 
which also serves as food; hemp {Canabis indica), both textile and 
medicinal; the ceibon or cotton-silk tree {Bombax pentandria)\ the 
hunari {Sida romboided)., also medicinal; several plants of the Agave 
family; the pita or wild pineapple (J^wc/'m gigantea)\ the pitahaya 
{Cereus variabilis); the ramie {Boehmeria hived), of which there are 
two varieties; and several others, such as the plantain {Musa textilis)., 
the cocoanut tree {Cocus nucifera), and the Lechuguilla {Agave 
heterocanta). 

Maguey and its products. — The " maguey," from which the national 
drink, pulque, is extracted, is indigenous to Mexico, but it is found 
growing in the United States, although not in any great abundance. 
There are 125 species of this plant peculiar to Mexico. The " maguey" 
grows most abundantly on the great plains, the plateaus, at an eleva- 
tion of more than 7,000 feet above the sea. On the vast plains of 
Apam, about 100 miles from the capital, the plants are to be seen as 
far as the eye can reach, laid out in straight rows having an interval 
of 3 yards between them. It is said that there are 33 species of the 
plant on the plateaus. As far back as 1519 the native Mexicans culti- 
vated the " maguey," of which great variety of products were obtained 
from the roots, leaves, and juice. Paper was made from the pulp of 
the leaves, twine and thread from their fibers, and needles from the 
sharp tips of their leaves. These leaves also serve as thatching for 
the houses of the poor. The rare and valuable Mexican manuscripts 
in ancient times were made of pulp from the "maguey," which resem- 
bles the papyrus. It is claimed that at least 40 different articles are 
manufactured from the plant. Some of the "maguey" plantations 
produce a revenue of $10,000 to $12,000 per annum. 

Pulque is the fermented juice of this plant, and the consumption of 
this beverage in the City of Mexico and outlying towns in the Federal 
District is something enormous. In the city alone in 1901-2 there 
were over 1,000 shops devoted exclusively to its sale. A train on the 
Mexican Railway leaves the plains of Apam every day laden with 
nothing but pulque in barrels and skins, deriving a large revenue from 
the shipments. 

The production of pulque during the fiscal year 1901-2 is estimated 
at 3,168,602 hectoliters, valued at $4,009,219, the principal producer 
being Tlaxcala, with an output of 2,070,502 hectoliters, valued at 
$2,110,216, and next Hidalgo, with 776,835 hectoliters, at $1,096,586, 
and Mexico, with about 207,500 hectoliters, valued at about $440,000. 



I 



ZAOATON. 201 

Mezcal or tequila is a strong alcoholic beverage, colorless or of a very 
[light amber tint. It is distilled from the root of the "maguey mezcal" 
jor "tequila" {Agave americana Lam.), and has an odor and taste not 
junlike Scotch whisky. Mexicans claim that it has good stomachic quali- 
ties, but it is a great intoxicant. The best quality of the article comes 
from the district of Tequila, in the State of Jalisco, from which it 
derives its name. The total output for 1901-2 is officially estimated 
at 188,732 hectoliters, at |3,714,498, the production of the State of 
Jalisco alone being credited with $1,1Y1,670 for the finer grade (tequila), 
and $61,290 for mezcal or the coarser variety. The total product of 
the country for the last five years was 1,199,017 hectoliters, valued at 
$25,217,106. 

Tlachique is the unfermented juice of the maguey plant, and is also 
consumed in large quantities, the output in 1901-2 being 1,180,192 
hectoliters, valued at $2,258,450, the State of Mexico being credited 
with over 610,000 hectoliters, at $1,063,000. 

Zacaton. — Among the numerous plants that Mexico produces that 
are being utilized in the industries of various countries is "zacaton," or 
broom root. It belongs to the family of Graminaes {Epicampes 
macroura)^ and is found in a wild state in many sections of the country. 
Having been classed as a weed, it has never been cultivated to any 
extent. The valuable part of this plant is the root. This may be 
gathered at all seasons of the year. A peon digs it up with a tool 
resembling a hoe-, and it is subjected to a cleaning operation by which 
the root is deprived of its thin skin and all objectionable matter. The 
root is then exposed to the fumes of sulphur, for the purpose of 
bleaching it to the pale, yellowish color preferred by the trade; it is 
then sorted by quality, the preferred parts being the thin and straight, 
or only slightly curly ones. Zacaton is packed in bales for shipment, 
the material being compressed by a primitive contrivance. Experi- 
ments have proven the beneficial effects of cultivation, the root pro- 
duced being superior to that of the wild species. 

France and Germany are the principal markets for zacaton, fully 
90 per cent of the entire yearly shipments from Veracruz going to 
those countries, the remaining 10 per cent being shipped to the United 
States, Belgium, Spain, England, Holland, etc. 

The following prices, per 50 kilograms (110 pounds), are quoted for 
zacaton at Hamburg: • % 

Marks. 

Low grade 30 to 34=$7. 14 to $8. 09 

Ordinary , .' 39 to 42= 9. 28 to 9.99 

Middling 43 to 46=10.23 to 10.94 

Fine .' 50 to 58=11.90 to 13. 80 

Extra superior 63 to 75=14. 99 to 17.85 

The average value at Hamburg is $11 to $43 in United. States cur- 
rency per 50 kilos. The shipments of zacaton through the port of 



202 MEXICO. 

Veracruz amount to 2,500 metric tons yearly, valued at $800,000 at 
the point of embarkation. 

Official statistics for 1902 give the total exports of zacaton during 
that year at 3,833,027 kilos, valued at $1,468,635. Germany is rep- 
resented in this export, in round numbers, with 1,670,000 kilos at 
$730,000; France with 1,308,000 kilos at $482,000, and the United 
States 778,000 kilos at $226,000. 

Oleaginous plants. — Mexico produces several plants yielding oils, 
both industrial and esculent; but up to the present no great industry 
has been founded in the country based upon the presence of many vari- 
ties of trees and plants giving oil-bearing products and the adaptability 
of much of the soil to the cultivation of these and other species. 

Among this kind of plants may be mentioned the pinon {Jatropha 
curcas), which 3delds 16 per cent of an emeto-cathartic oil of great 
strength. 

The Palma christi, or castor bean {Riccinus communis)., yields 40 per 
cent of a medicinal oil. As this contains a large proportion of stearin it 
can be used in the manufacture of candles. This plant grows spon- 
taneously and in great profusion in the hot and low temperate lands. 
One acre will produce about 1,600 pounds of oil. The ajonjoli {Sesa- 
mun indicum), or sesame, gives 33 per cent of a very soft, sweet, and 
agreeable oil. 

The nut of the Mcaco ( Ghrysohalanus icaco) also produces the same 
percentage of an esculent oil having the same properties as the almond 
oil. 

The peanut {Arachis hypogsea) gives the same amount. This and the 
last above-named oil are much prized in Marseille. 

Among the oleaginous plants may be mentioned the following: Cacao 
{Theohroma cacao), cocoanut {Cocos nucifera and Alfonsia elacis 
oleifera), the chicalote {Argeonone mexicana and A. grandiflora), the 
chia {Salvia poly stachia), the linseed, and others. 

The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1901-2 estimates as follows the pro- 
duction of several oleaginous plants: Sesamun, 17,839 hectoliters, 
$92,593; peanut, 101,851 hectoliters, $355,739; castor bean, 38,330, 
$164,649; linseed 53,560 heptoliters, at $268,500. 

Yiticidture.- — The experiment of introducing the vine, olive trees, 
and the silkworm industry into Mexico dates back as far as the con- 
quest. •Cortes himself had plantations of mulberry trees at Yautepec 
and Tetecla. The silkworm industry made fair progress at first, but 
the competition of Manila and Spain caused its gradual neglect. In 
1790 an effort was made to revive it, but without success. 

"The cultivation of olives and the vine," says Bancroft,*^ "labored 
under severe restrictions. Admirably adapted as soil and climate 
were for both purposes, the few plantations of olives were merely 

« History of Mexico, Vol. Ill, p. 613. 



VITICULTURE. 203 

allowed to exist because they belonged to pious or charitable estab- 
lishments, while as to the vine, the viceroys were repeatedly instructed 
not to permit the planting of new cuttings, nor even the replacing of 
vines in decay (1695). Wine could only be made on condition of 
paying taxes to the Crown, and it was not until 1796 that a more 
liberal policy in this respect was adopted." 

At the beginning of this chapter reference was made to the efforts of 
the Department of Promotion to encourage the culture of these plants. 
According to a report made by Senor Don Francisco Mallen to the 
Department of Promotion on the encouragement given to the propa- 
gation of vines and fruit trees in the country, Mexico, in 1892, imported 
1,053,450 plants, as follows: Vine cuttings, simple, 1,030,000; with 
roots, 11,000 ; olive cuttings, 9,250, and fruit trees of different varieties, 
3,200. More than half a million of these vine cuttings and 4,000 olive 
shoots were planted in Parras and 62,500 cuttings in Viezca, both in the 
State of Coahuila; 60,000 in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, and the rest 
were distributed in the Central Plateau and other regions in the southern 
part of the Republic. The first trial plantations were very succeesf ul, 
and the culture of the fine imported qualities has become more general, 
the planters having requested renewals of their original orders. The 
grape thrives best in Parras, which has become the center of viticulture 
in the country. California vines have given better satisfaction in this 
section than those from Europe. At the time of the above-mentioned 
report (1892) the Rosario plantation or vineyard (the largest in the 
Republic) had made a request for 25,000 additional cuttings, being 
already supplied with 60,000 vine stocks of the European and about 
13,000 of the California species, some of the former having been grown 
from those distributed by the Department of Promotion, while others 
had been imported directly from Spain, Italy, and France. It has 
been demonstrated that the California species thrives better. 

According to the "Anuario Estadistico" for 1901-2 the grape pro- 
duction of the country during that year amounted to 2,617,871 kilos, 
at 1190,966. Coahuila's production is given at 1,444,730 kilos, valued 
at $64,496. Lower California, in round numbers, produced 309,000 
kilos, at $38,000; Durango 235,000 kilos, $31,000; Agua Calientes 
234,000 kilos, at $6,200. Grape rum and grape wine are estimated 
by the same authority, for the same period, at 1,913 hectoliters of rum 
at $77,100 and 8,114 hectoliters of wine at $226,470. Coahuila's pro- 
duction of rum was 1,883 hectoliters at $75,320, and 7,183 hectoliters 
of wine at $192,600. 

It can not be said that Mexico has yet developed as a wine produc- 
ing country, but serious efforts in this direction have been made since 
1883. The wines now made, as a rule, are too light and acidulous. 
Table grapes are raised in considerable quantity, however, and their 
quality is becoming a dangerous rival to the California varieties for 
local consumption. 



204 MEXICO. 

The land best adapted to viticulture is in the vicinit}'" of the city of 
Paivras, State of Coahuila. Since 1890 the industry of the manufacture 
of wines^ias been making great strides. Several varieties of vines have 
been imported from abroad, and at the two largest wineries cellars 
have been constructed and all the latest improvements for vinous fer- 
mentation introduced, being under fhe management and direction of 
foreign experts in the art. In 1897 there were about 4,000 acres 
planted in vines in the locality named, most of the grapes being of the 
variety known in California as the "Mission" grape, it having been 
introduced there by the missionary fathers from Spain. In the year 
noted wine sold on the ground at $1.20 per gallon Mexican money. 

Olive and vudherry trees. — As regards olive and mulberry trees, the 
only official data available show that in 1893 there were imported 
72,000 olive cuttings, of which 4,000 were planted in Parras. It is 
anticipated that the encouragement given this industry by the Depart- 
ment of Promotion will greatly advance its progress. When the late 
Gen. Carlos Pacheco was k^cretary of Promotion he gave new life to 
the cultivation of the vine and the mulberry tree. The latter, which 
is so necessary to the silkworm industry, is now receiving attention 
in many places, principally in the States of Puebla, Jalisco, Michoacau, 
and Guanajuato. A Mexican planted, in 1896, 152,000 mulberry trees 
in the State of Guanajuato, pursuant to a contract made with the State 
legislature, in which contract he binds himself to lay out 2,000,000 
trees within two years. 

FRUITS. 

Mexico possesses exceptional conditions for the production and 
trade in fruit owing to her situation and the fertility of her soil. 
The United States, her principal market, lies at her very doors, and 
communication by water and land is both rapid and moderate in 
charges. The most favored Mexican fruits in the United States are 
the orange, lemon, lime, pineapple, and banana. But the day will come 
when other tropical fruits will be appreciated and become a large ele- 
ment of the American imports. Fruits such as the mango {Mangifera 
indica), custard apple {Anacardium occidentalis) , chirimoj^a {Anooia 
cherimolia)^ mamey {Mmnmea amsricana), zapote {Achras zapote)., the 
alligator pear {Persea gratissima), and others which are distinctively 
tropical, when properly appreciated, will be consumed largely in 
American markets. 

Bananas. — The banana grows spontaneously in great abundance 
near the Mexican coast. On lands near the sea, at an elevation of 
from 1,900 to 2,400 feet above it, great plantations of banana trees 
can be laid out at a cost of 5 cents per plant, which includes every 
expense up to the time of bearing fruit. At the end of the first year 



FRUITS. 205 

the plant produces one bunch, which can be sold in the United States 
at from $2.50 to $3. A thousand banana trees, costing $50, will 
bring $1,000 at least in one year. An acre will produce from TOO to 
800 bunches, at a cost not exceeding 8 cents a bunch, each of which 
can be sold on the ground for 40 cents, yielding a net profit of at least 
$225 per acre. The exportation of this fruit from the West Indies 
and Central America reaches into the millions every year. 

The production of bananas in 1901-2 is officially given at 19,057,7T5 
kilograms, estimated at $445,792. The largest production, over 
3,500,000 kilos, is credited to Michoacan; next ranks Morelos, with 
over 2,700,000 kilos; Jalisco, 2,500,000, and Puebla, with 2,335,000 
kilos. San Luis Potosi, Sinaloa, Tamaulipas, and Tepic are credited with 
over 1,000,000 kilos each. Tlaxcala and Aguascalientes are the only 
States not represented in the Mexican official statistics in reference. 

Oranges — The orange is the leading member of the aurantiaceous 
family under the genus citrus. Three kinds grow in Mexico — the 
sweet, the sour, and the Chinese or mandarin, and another called 
"lima-orange," which is a variety of the sweet orange. The country 
affords much better facilities for the cultivation of the aurantiaceous 
fruits than the southern part of Europe, which suffers the disadvan- 
tage of lack of rains in the summer, rendering it necessary to irrigate 
the trees for five months in the year, thereby incurring an increased 
expense. In Mexico the rains begin in May or June, thus rendering 
irrigation wholly unnecessary. 

The California and Florida stock have recently been imported into 
the country and grafted and budded with the Mexican trees. Many 
thousand acres of land are being opened up to this cultivation in the 
Northern States. Many are the uses to which this tree can be put, as 
witness the following quotation from a report of the United States 
consulate-general to Mexico.^ 

"The orange leaves are the tea of the Indians and of the poor, and 
in large cities, where they are peddled in the streets and sold in the 
markets in small bunches for 1 cent apiece, are consumed in large 
quantities. They are considered the best remedj^ for insomnia and 
restlessness, and are also highly commended as a night drink for chil- 
dren. . A fine wine is manufactured from the refuse oranges purchased 
at 20 to 30 cents a hundred, in Cuautla, Morelos, and Guadalajara, 
which retails at 50 cents a bottle. 

"There are other valuable products which could be obtained, such 
as the distilled water of the blossoms, used for toilet purposes, worth 
$4.50 a gallon; citric acid from the pulp of the sour oranges, worth $1 
a pound; a pomade, much used as a cosmetic, worth $2.50 a pound; oil 

« United States Consular Reports, "Orange Cultivation in Mexico," Vol. LIU, pp. 
209-222, 1897. 



206 MEXICO. 

from the leaves and rind, which constitutes the main odorous ingredi- 
ents of cologne waters and elixirs, worth $3.50 to- $5 a pound, and the 
essential oils from the blossoms, leaves, and unripe fruit, known as 
Neroli petale^ Neroli higarade^ and essence de petit grain, high odors 
used by the perfumers, generally worth from $5 to $6 an ounce. The 
second oil mentioned could be manufactured at a small expense, the 
flowers costing not more than 12i cents a pound, out of the numerous 
wild groves of sour oranges existing in the greater part of the tropical 
belt of Mexico." 

The orange tree can be cultivated in Mexico on lands at an altitude 
from 100 to 2,500 feet above sea level. Mexican growers usually 
propagate the orange from the seed, although it can be reproduced 
more advantageously by budding, grafting, layering, inarching, and 
from cuttings. In the latter case the fruit appears in from four to 
five years, and in the former in from seven to eight years. The flower 
in the warmer climates appears in the latter part of October, and the 
season lasts throughout the whole orange territory until May. During 
the months mentioned the blossoms can be collected by placing mats on 
the ground and gently shaking the trees. Not less than from 10 to 15 
pounds of fresh flowers can be obtained from a full-grown tree, and 
some trees produce as high as from 26 to 30 pounds. '^ A good business 
can be done by properly drying the blossoms, which reduces their 
weight to half, and druggists and dealers pay from 75 cents to $1 per 
pound for these. The fresh blossom brings from 25 to 37i cents per 
pound. 

The yield of the orange trees in Mexico varies considerably, soil, 
climate, proper irrigation, where needed, pruning, and cultivation 
being important factors in determining the extent of the crops. In 
Atlixco, Yautepec, and Tacambaro the trees average 860 oranges each; 
but in Atotonilco, Montemorelos, and Hermosillo the average yield is 
from 1,700 to 2,200 oranges per year, producing one crop a year. 
With the advantages of climate and soil, the Mexican orange tree 
should yield from 5,000 to 8,000 oranges. 

Good orange lands can be procured in Lower California, Chihuahua, 
Coahuila, Sinaloa, and Durango for from $5 to $25 Mexican currency 
per acre; in Sonora, Nuevo Leon, Puebla, and San Luis Potosi, from 
$25 to $50 per acre; in Michoacan, from $5 to $50 an acre; in Morelos, 
Jalisco, and Veracruz, from $100 to $250 an acre; in Guerrero, Mexico, 
Tepic, Tamaulipas, Oaxaca, the Isthmus, and Chiapas, from $40 to $60 
an acre. These prices are for small tracts running from 100 to 500 
acres; larger tracts can be obtained much cheaper. 

«Senor Romero (op. dt., p. 59) says the production of flowers per tree is from 22 
to 55 pounds in the case of sweet oranges, and from 60 to 100 pounds per tree from 
the bitter variety. 



OEANGES. 



207 



The United States yearly consumes about 70,000 carloads or 
21,000,000 boxes of oranges; of these, 10,000,000 boxes were formerly 
furnished by Florida and about 3,000,000 by California. The ship- 
ment of oranges from Mexico for the year 1896 was about 700 car- 
loads, and during the season 1896-97 the exportation from the Republic 
was about 1,050 carloads. Notwithstanding the protective duty 
imposed by the United States up to January, 1899, the agent of the 
Department of Promotion of Mexico in Kansas City disposed of 41,100 
boxes of oranges, the gross proceeds of which were |121,898 gold. 
During the fiscal year 1897-98 the United States imported Mexican 
oranges to the value of $134,666; during the ten months ending April 
30, 1899, to the value of $137,035, and during the twelve months end- 
ing with June, 1903, the importations amounted to about 6,000,000, 
valued at |87,407. 

The shipments begin about September 1 and end on December 15. 
It ordinarily takes twelve days, moderately fast freight, to send cars 
from shipping points to Chicago or Cincinnati, although some cars 
have made the trip in eight days. The best shipping oranges are from 
Hermosillo, in the State of Sonora; Montemorelos, in the State of 
Nuevo Leon; Rio Verde, La Barca, and Guadalajara, in the State of 
Jalisco. The next grade is from Yautepec, in the State of Oaxaca; 
Michoacan and Atlixco, in the State of Puebla. 

The boxes generally used for shipping are imported from the United 
States. One or two firms in Mexico have attempted to manufacture 
orange boxes, but they have not succeeded in turning out a first-class 
quality. The cost of a box is 31 cents; of the wrapping paper, 15 
cents per box (all of which is imported); cost of packing, 36 cents 
per box; freight and consular costs per box from Kansas City, St. 
Louis, Chicago, or Cincinnati, $2.04; and United States duties, under 
the new tariff act, 15 per cent ad valorem. 

Below is given a table which is taken from the report of the United 
States consulate-general at Mexico, above referred to, which shows 
the results that can be obtained from a small tract of land of 11 acres, 
10 of which are planted in oranges. 



Description. 



Cost in 
Mexican 
currency. 



Land (fromS25 to 8100 an acre) 81,100.00 

Houses, one of 8350, another of 850 400. 00 

Farming implements 35. 00 

Clearing of land 77.00 

Plowing land, lOJ acres, first year 21. 50 

Garden and seeds, half acre 10. 00 

Fencing and outhouses - 60. 00 

Nursery (3,516 seedlings) I 12.30 

Two hundred Riverside navel trees, 80 cents each 160. 00 



Planting Riverside navel orange trees. 

Seven hundred cuttings, and planting in trench . 

Transplanting cuttings, second year 

Transplanting 640 seedlings 

Replacing, 10 per cent 



4.00 
14.00 
14.00 
12.80 

1.30 



208 



MEXICO. 



Destination. 



Plowing 120 acres, six years 

Irrigation, seven years 

Weeding and cultivating, seven years, S40 , 

Planting of corn, six years, 5 acres 

Planting of beans, six years, 5 acres 

Seed beans, 83, and corn, $1, six years, 5 acres each 
Harvesting and shelling beans and corn, six years . 

Six hundred and forty buds 

Manuring, six years 



Total . 



Production: 

Six years' crops of corn, 300 cargas, at $3 

Six years' crops of beans, 500 cargas, at S5 

Two years' crops of Riverside navels, 120,000, at i 
One year's crop from cuttings, 21,000, at $4 



Total 

Less expense and cost of land. 



[ per 1,000 . 



Cost in 
Mexican 
currency. 



$120. 00 
98.00 
200.00 
1.5.00 
15.00 
24.00 
60.00 
16.00 
30.00 



2, 579. 90 



900.00 

2,500.00 

480.00 

840.00 



Net profit at end of seventh year. 



4,720.00 
2,679.90 



2, 140. 10 



From the eighth year on the plantation will average from 676 to 600 
oranges per tree, and on the tenth year 1,000 oranges per tree, at a 
yearl}^ expense of $200 for the 10 acres. Two peones (day laborers) 
can do the general work of the plantation. These can be hired for 
from $1.50 to $2 per week each. From the tenth 3^ ear forward a 
grower can have with all assurance a net income of $6,000 per year 
out of such size plantations if no plague or pests attack the trees, and 
in Mexico the tree is not generally subject to any disease nor is it 
affected by any pests. 

The production of oranges for 1901-2 is given in the following table 
from the "Anuario Estadistico" for the period in reference: 



state. 



Kilos. 



Value. 



Aguascalientes 
Baja California 

Campeche 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Durango 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

MiehoacAn 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon . . . 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonera 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

Zacatecas 

Total 



13, 800 


$800 


62, 250 


3,500 


561, 050 


3,650 


496, 450 


5,350 


252,266 


7,153 


1, 045, 220 


32,400 


56, 202 


1,023 


314,336 


3,576 


8, 638, 971 


304,163 


1,403,683 


24, 026 


1, 794, 290 


45, 980 


740, 580 


31,816 


2,015,661 


25,262 


16,255 


472 


850,562 


21,421 


895, 700 


37,378 


1, 786, 370 


139,060 


233, 107 


8,125 


91, 120 


7,303 


996, 996 


13,448 


308, 305 


7,691 


22,572,163 


723,597 



Some idea of the magnitude of orange growing may be arrived at 
when it is known that the plantation "La Eugenia" at Montemorelos, 
in the State of Nuevo Leon, contains 50,000 orange trees in bearing, 



MEDICINAL PLANTS. 209 

and 200,000 have been planted which will yield fruit in a few years. 
It is estimated that each tree on that plantation will yield two cases 
I of oranges per annum, which will sell for $15 gold. In addition to 
oranges, fine lemons, grape fruit, and tangerines realize high prices in 
the New York market. 

The lime, lemon, and sweet lemon are also much cultivated on the 
; same lands that produce the orange, and they have become a large 
{element in the countrj^'s exportations. 

Pineapples. — The pineapple is also cultivated to a very great extent. 
It is easily raised and needs hardly any care after planting. It has 
I been said that the cost per plant from the seed until ready for market 
is not over 5 cents. It has been estimated that 2^ acres planted in 
pineapples will easily produce 10,000 plants. The crop of corn which 
is sown among the pineapples will fully meet the expense of the culti- 
vation of the fruit; thus the 10,000 pineapples, when planted in this 
way, will cost absolutely nothing. On the ground the fruit sells for 
about 38 cents per dozen, but exported to the United States they 
bring a good price, netting about $1,500 per acre under cultivation, 
and one man can easily cultivate 6 acres. With an outlaj' of about 
$1,200 gold a person can at the end of three years have from 15,000 
to 20,000 bearing pineapple plants. 

The total production in 1901-2 is officially reported at 2,046,119 
kilos, estimated at $46,376, Tepic ranking first, Jalisco second, Hidalgo 
and Puebla coming next. Ten of the States are not listed in the 
statistics at hand. 

The list of tropical fruits which Mexico produces is too extensive 
to be incorporated here. Latest Mexican official statistics give the 
annual product of 79 different varieties of fruits. 

Consul-General Barlow in his report before mentioned gives the 
names of American firms engaged in the fruit industry in Mexico, 
there being 1 in Chiapas, 1 in Nuevo Leon, 1 in Tamaulipas, 14 in 
Oaxaca, and 13 in Veracruz. 

Medicinal plants. — In an official list of the flora of the hot lands of 
Mexico, prepared by the Government in 1893,^ there are enumerated 
233 distinct species of medicinal plants, as well as 14 dyewoods. 
Among the former may be mentioned the jafap root {Ipomsea) and 
sarsaparilla {SmUax sarsaparilla and Smilax arenisca)^ which grow 
wild, both of which occupied a very prominent place in the trade 
figures of the country some years ago, but which have recently 
assumed a secondary position. The total production of these plants 
in 1901-2, according to Mexican official figures, was as follows: Jalap 
root, 6,810 kilos, at $817, produced by the State of Hidalgo, the only 
State given, and sarsaparilla, 690,688 kilos, at $22,873, Oaxaca being 
credited with the largest production, nearly 607,000 kilos. 

«Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos: Mexico, 1893. 
509a— 04 14 



210 MEXICO. 

Dyewoods. — Among the dye-producing plants are the Brazil ( CassaZ- 
pinia crista) and Campeche [Heamatoxylon chianurn) woods, dragons' 
blood {Pterocarpns draco)^ " Grana" {Ruhia tinctorea), " Zacatlaxcala" 
{Cmcuta americana), "moral " {Madura tinctorea)^ and indigo {Indigo- 
fera — two varieties), some of which are exported in considerable quan- 
tities. It has been estimated that the value of dyewoods exported by 
Mexico is fast approaching the sum of $250,000 per month. Official 
figures for the j^ear 1901-2 give the following estimates of the produc- 
tion of these plants during the year: Indigo, 81,892 kilos, valued at 
$168,239; Brazil wood, 3,016,742 kilos, at $28,697; Campeche or log- 
wood, 15,092,250 kilos, at $515,275, and "moral" wood, 901,550 kilos, 
at $58,147. Chiapas is the largest indigo-producing State and Michoa- 
can the second. Sinaloa and Michoacan produce the largest quantity 
of Brazil wood; Campeche, Yucatan, and Tabasco, logwood, and San 
Luis Potosi, Tabasco, and Sinaloa, moral wood. Exports of dyewoods 
during 1902 are quoted at 32,751,754 kilos, estimated at $993,167, the 
principal consumers being England, 22,254,000 kilos; Kussia, 3,400,000 
kilos; Germany, 2,000,000 kilos; British Honduras, 1,731,000 kilos; 
France, 1,540,000 kilos, and the United States, 1,371,500 kilos. 

Fodder plants abound, the principal being the fard ( Chrysopagon 
avenaceiis), guinea grass, alfalfa or lucern, ramon {TrojyMs americana)^ 
and the ojite {Brosinum alicastrum). There are 445 classified species 
of graminaceous plants. A profitable crop for the irrigated lands of 
the plateau country is lucern. Green alfalfa retails in the streets of 
Mexico City at 15 cents for 25 pounds. From five to nine crops can 
be raised yearly, and under good conditions the yield will be 10 tons 
per crop to the acre. 

Woods. — There are immense quantities of building lumber and cabi- 
net woods, many species of which are yet unknown in foreign markets, 
although they are classed among the most precious. 

An official list of the woods in Mexico in 1897" gives 200 varieties. 
Among the woods used as constructive material the principal are the 
"Algarrobo" {Himenea courharil), "Almendrillo" {Pomus occiden- 
tales), "Ceiba" {Eriodendon anfractuosmi'i)., "Granadillo" {Byra 
ebanus)., " Guanacastle," {Lignum-vitse)., " Guayacan " {Guayacum ver- 
z^icaZ<g), ironwood {Robinia sp.)., " Mezquitillo " {Cassia occidentalis), 
"Ocote," yellow and white {Pinus harborwegii and P. ayacahuite), 
white oak {Quercus jalapensis)., and several others. 

Cabinet woods. — The following are among the principal cabinet woods 
in the country: Mahogany {Suetenia mahogani).^ "Caobilla" {Groton 
lucidiim)^ cedar {Cedrella odorata)^ three varieties, one white and two 
red; ebony {Dyospiros ebemmi), three varieties, one of them called 
green ebony {Chloroxylon); "Gateado" {Suetenia sj?.), and rosewood 
{Tecorna multifiora). 

«Anuario Estadistico de la Eepublica Mexicana, 1897: Mexico, 1898. 










. r*^^^^ 



' TANNING PLANTS. 211 

The yearly production of mahogany amounts on an average to about 
$1,200,000 Mexican silver, Chiapas, Tabasco, Veracruz, and Cam- 
peche supplying the greatest quantity of this valuable wood. One- 
half of the mahogany consumed in the United States comes from 
Mexico. Cedar is found in all parts of the country, but the States of 
Chihuahua, Tabasco, and Veracruz contain the largest and most 
desirable forests of this wood, cutting annually cedar logs to the value 
of more than $1,000,000. With the exception of the State of Nuevo 
Leon, which cuts yearly more than 30,000,000 kilos of ebony, this 
wood is almost unknown commercially in the Republic; some, however, 
is produced in Tamaulipas, Guerrero, Hidalgo, and.Yucatan. Puebla 
produces a greater quantity of aloe wood than ajij of the other Mex- 
ican States; Coahuila the most oak; Nuevo Leon the greatest quantity 
of walnut; the Territory of Lower California, ironwood, while the 

iState of Jalisco is celebrated for its orange wood. 

The exports of precious woods (mahogany, ebony, etc.) for the year 
1902 is officially estimated at $1,362,731, tfie United States taking 
about $1,050,000. 

I Tanning ^plants. — Among the flora of this favored countr}^ are many 

{trees, shrubs, etc., yielding tannic acid, among which may be men- 
tioned the cascalote {Rhus cariaria)^ timhe {Mimosa sp.), mangrove 
{Rhizophora mangle), white mangrove {Amcennia tomentosa), and the 

icanaigre. The first named produces a very excellent tanning material 

I; from its bark. The value of the exportations of this material for the 
fiscal year 1897-98 was $49,021. 

I The canaigre is a tuber, and resembles the sugar beet in shape, while 
the leaf is similar to that of the rhubarb or pieplant. It is indigenous 
to Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Lower California. Of recent 

j years it has been cultivated to a considerable extent in New Mexico 
and Texas; but not much attention has been paid to the industry in 
Mexico, althoug-h it produces from 25 to 30 per cent of tannic acid. 
The root can be used not only for common tanning purposes, but also 
for fine saddlery and fancy leathers. It can be used alone or in con- 
nection with other materials. It is noted for its quickness and thor- 
oughness in tanning, as well as for the color, beauty, consistency, and 
pliability imparted to the leather. 

Canaigre is a dry-climate plant, but its growth is assisted materially 
by irrigation. Until quite recently the root had to be gathered by 
digging the wild plant, but experience has demonstrated that it can be 
successfully cultivated, and there is no question that it improves in 
size, quality, yield, and in percentage of tannic acid. The annual yield 
per acre is about the same as that of beets (60 to 80 tons). In New 
Mexico the cost of cultivation per acre is about $23.50, including irri- 
gation and water rental; but in Mexico, especially in the central and 
southern sections of the country, the rains will furnish all the necessary 



212 MEXICO. 

moisture, thereby reducing very materially the expense. This plant 
has only attracted public attention as a commercial product within the 
past five years, and it would seem that those employed in agricultural 
pursuits in the neighboring Republic would do well to add one more 
item to their productions, for it is evident that the market for canaigre 
is practically unlimited, since the oak and hemlock barks, so exten- 
sively used in the tannic industry of the United States, are becoming 
very scarce, and the price of tannin is constantly on the increase. 

According to Mexican official statistics for 1901-2, the production of 
tanning plants amounted to 16,510,075 kilos, valued at $171,155 silver, 
the production of, " Cascalote " being represented by 2,966,156 kilos 
for $132,813. 

OTHER PLANTS. 

Yucca^ also called manioca in South America — two varieties, the 
sweet {Jatro'pha manioc) and the bitter {Manihot utiliss.) — is a shrub 
about 1 feet in height, with from 6 to 10 tubers to each plant, weighing 
from 1 to 12 pounds each. It is an important product of the State of 
Chiapas. It commences to yield, in good soil, one year after planting. 
The tubers, besides yielding starch, furnish food to man and cattle. 
Two and a half acres of land will jdeld 6,000 pounds of tubers, which 
will produce 3,000 pounds of starch. 

Sugar l)eet. — The States of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas, 
San LuisPotosi, and some others of the northern-central part of Mexico 
include many districts which are eminently fitted to produce the sugar 
beet. This industry has not as yet taken any firm root in the country. 

Ginger {Zenziber officinalis) grows wild in various parts of Mexico, 
and if properly cultivated ought to yield 1,000 pounds peracre, accord- 
ing to Romero. 

The Mexican linaloe {Amyris linaloe) is a large tree, the wood being 
soft and of a very light-yellow color. The bark exudes a resin called 
'"'' xocMopaiy The wood has a very pleasant odor, which is compared 
to that of a mixture of essence of lemon and essence of jasmine, and 
upon distillation yields from 6 to 9 per cent of a very light-yellow 
essence. The tree abounds in the southern parts of the States of 
Puebla and Guerrero, and it is reported to grow also in the tropical 
portion of the Pacific slope of Mexico at the same altitude as in its 
habitat in Puebla and Guerrero. A good deal of the essence is sent to 
the city of Puebla, which is one of the chief markets in Mexico for the 
product. It is worth |75 silver ($28.78gold) perarroba (1.263 gallons). 
The process of distillation is careful, but very primitive and inexpen- 
sive. Sticks of the linaloe about the length and thickness of medium- 
sized cord wood, are supplied to the laborers, each of whom has a little 
inclosure contiguous to the still. These laborers reduced the sticks to 
small, thin chips, and these chips, without further process, are placed 



NATIVE METHODS. 213 

I in the still. The linaloe essence is the article exported. The major 
part goes to Hamburg and some to Havre, and now and then a ship- 
ment goes to New York. It is largely in demand as the base of 
Bxquisite perfumes. 

Native methods. — ^The modes of cultivation in Mexico in many places 
(still differ but little from those employed by the ancient Egyptians. 
This, of course, does not refer to large plantations, where in the last 
jfew years the proprietors have introduced modern methods and agri- 
cultural machinery. But among the small landholders and the Indians 
wooden-beam plows, with a small iron shoe, are still used. These make 
a furrow 5 inches wide by 5 deep. A hoe is also used, which often 
weighs from 3 to 6 pounds. A saw-tooth sickle completes the outfit 
with which the ordinary Mexican crops are raised and gathered. The 
plow is nothing more than a forked stick, the shorter fork being* iron 
shod and sharpened; the longer is lashed with rawhide thongs to 
I the yoke of oxen that draws this prehistoric implement. It takes 
about four men and four* yoke of oxen to do the work of one man and 
s one horse. 

Up to within a very short period (and it is the case at present, 
j except on the largest plantations) all thrashing of grain was done by 
I driving horses or mules around in a ring upon the straw which is on 
the ground. The winnowing is done by men tossing the grain and 
chaff in the air with scoop shovels. Mexicans, as a rule, object to 
thrashing machines because they leave the straw whole, while by 
employing their method the constant trampling cuts it up as fine as 
though run through a feed cutter, and as straw is universally used as 
feed any further preparation is unnecessary. 

The grain is transported from the field to the farmhouse or station 
on ponderous two-wheeled carts, there being 3 pounds of cart to 1 of 
load for the oxen to pull. Better facilities for communication between 
the United States and the neighboring Republic have changed some of 
these methods, as before stated; but there is still one drawback to the 
general use of improved American agricultural machinery in the coun- 
try, which, however, is gradually disappearing by the establishment 
of machine-repairing shops. The machinery, as a rule, is costly and 
unfamiliar, and should any part of it break, rare is the Mexican black- 
smith who can repair it, as usually the broken part is of cast iron, and 
.the distance from the manufactory causes long dela}^ and heavy expense. 

Official statistics give the number of haciendas, or plantations, in 
the Eepublic in 1897 at 8,101, devoted to the cultivations following: 
Cereals, 3,100; sugar cane, 1,395; henequen, 395; coffee, 373; maguey 
[pulque), 279; cacao, 239; cotton, 135; maguey {mescal), 134; tobacco, 
92; cabinet woods, 69; indigo, 29; fruits, 6; grapes, 6; and 1,560 
devoted to cattle raising. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

STOCK RAISING. 

The raising of cattle has always been one of the most important 
industries of Mexico, and one of the least restricted by the Spaniards 
of the eighteenth century, who, by means of special legislation, gave 
encouragement to it to the extent of making it th« favorite occupation 
of the inhabitants of the country. In earlier times cattle were of 
little value except for their hides, which formed an important item of 
export; later, however, they were turned to better advantage, the hides 
being manufactured into leather and the tallow used for the manufac- 
ture of soap. During the eighteenth century sheep raising also became 
an important industry in the northern and central provinces. 

The States of the northern frontier are so well adapted to such pur- 
poses that they may be said to be immense cattle ranges. The excel- 
lent situation of the lands, as well as their generally well-watered 
condition, will, as has been said by persons who have given study to- 
the matter, make Mexico a formidable rival of the Argentine Republic. 

Although the population of the United States has increased surpris- 
ingly within the past few years, there has been a large falling off in 
the number of cattle. Statistics show that there has been a diminu- 
tion of 8,000,000 head of cattle within that period, so that it can be 
readily seen that cattle raising for the market in the neighboring 
Republic presents alluring prospects. Considerable interest has been 
manifested of late in this industry, and the Mexican railroad officials 
have been endeavoring to build it up, with marked success. 

Mexican cattle as a rule are small in size, ranging between 900 and 
1,200 pounds in weight. This latter weight is considered in the Eng- 
lish market as small, and the suggestion has been made by British 
traders that it would be wise for the Mexican cattle raisers to import 
English Shorthorn bulls for the purpose of breeding larger cattle. 
The Department of Promotion has taken a deep interest in this subject, 
and man}^ reforms have been introduced to the betterment of the stock. 
Cotton-seed meal is one of the prominent products of Mexico, and, 
although it is one of the foods to be* relied on chiefly for fattening 
cattle, nearly the entire output of this article is sent every year to the 
United States and Europe. 
214 



CATTLE. 216 

i It has been estimated that the total cost of fattening a steer is about 
!$15 silver, and as there is an unlimited demand in Europe for choice 
meats at about 12 cents gold per pound, and no import duties to be 
paid, it can readily be seen that there are large benefits to be derived 
from the industry of cattle raising. 

The States of Durango, Sonora, Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, 
{Tamaulipas, Veracruz, and Michoacan present admirable fields for the 
development of this great industry. The rich pasture lands of the 
latter State feed the thousands of cattle for the sustenance of the resi- 
I dents of the capital of the Mexican Republic. 

Some of the States are not well provided with water, but it has been 
[ demonstrated that with small expense all the necessary water can be 
obtained by the boring of wells. In the State of Guanajuato a corn- 
pan}^, under the patronage of the State government, some years since 
bored wells and began the breeding and fattening of cattle on a large 
scale. The country around Tampico is wonderfully rich, the grass 
growing waist high there all the year round. It is deserving of inves- 
tigation by those contemplating going into the business of cattle raising. 

In the northern and eastern part of the Republic, lean stock can be 
bought at from |5 to $15 per head, and sold when fattened at from $20 
to $46 per head. San Luis Potosi, southern Tamaulipas, and northern 
Veracruz are well adapted to cattle raising. The yard grass grows 
here in abundance. It is evergreen, very nourishing, and is a weed 
exterminator. It has been estimated that an investment of $30,000 
gold in this industry will 3deld a net profit of $20,000 in six months. 

Mexico raises great numbers of cattle for the United States, and 
does so under better conditions of climate than the latter country, for 
the stock raisers of this country lose thousands every year, owing to 
the rigorous winters and severe summers. 

According to statistics compiled by the United States Bureau of 
Animal Industry, 63,660 cattle were exported from Mexico to the 
United States in 1902, against 99,9Y6 in the previous year. Of the 
8,868 cattle exported from Mexico to the United States during Decem- 
feer, 1902, Y,627 were shipped to California for grazing. Mexican 
cattle are received into the United States at the ports of entry at 
Eagle Pass, Nogales, El Paso, and San Diego. 

' The exportation of raw hides is a growing trade in Mexico, of which 
the United States is the greatest consumer. During the fiscal year of 
1901-2 the value of the hides exported to the United States amounted 
to $3,4:89,647, as compared with $2,668,369 exported to that country 
in the fiscal year 1900-1901. During the first four months of 1902-3 
the declared value of the hides exported was $1,863,707.10, more than 
one-half of which was consigned to the United States. 

Cuba is becoming a very important market for Mexican live stock, 



216 mexicCn 

the following being the approximate price (Spanish gold) paid for 
Mexican cattle at Habana: 

Per head. 

Bulls 4 to 6 years old $30 to $32 

Bulls 2 years old 20 to 22 

Heifers 2 years old 19 to 21 

Sterile cows under 10 years old 25 to 26 

Breeding cows 28 to 30 

Mares, fat, unbroken 25 to 28 

Horses, unbroken 85 to 40 

Mules, unbroken, 4 to 6 years 40 to 50 

The number of cattle exported from Mexico during the five fiscal 

years ending June 30, 1902, is estimated as follows: 

1897-98 .--. 227,000 

1898-99 100,000 

1899-1900 184,000 

1900-1 197,000 

1901-2 161,000 

Importation of many pure-bred cattle from the United States into 
Mexico is resulting in marked improvement in the long horn native 
type. It is the prevailing opinion that a cross between the pure- 
blooded cattle of the North and the native stock produces a large, 
healthy, vigorous ofi'spring, with an unusually compact muscular 
development. 

A Mexican writer on stock raising is authorit}^ for the following 
data in regard to the facilities ofi'ered b}^ Mexico for stock breeding:'* 

"In the foothills of both coasts, where pasturage is more luxuriant, 
and consequently can support many more head per acre than in the 
northern districts, ranges can be purchased at a much lower figure per 
head of cattle than in the North. That is to say, $10,000 judiciously 
invested in the pasture lands in the foothills of Tepic, Jalisco, Michoa- 
can, Guerrero, Veracruz, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, or Tamaulipas 
will maintain more cattle than the same amount invested in pasture 
lands in Chihuahua, Durango, Coahuila, northern Zacatecas, or Sonora, 
although the number of acres will be less. 

' ' On the Gulf slope of the eastern Cordilleras, in the State of San 
Luis Potosi, eastern Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz, is a region 
known as the Huasteca Potosina, lying tributary to the Tamesi and 
Panuco rivers and to the Tempoal and Tamasunchale, tributaries to the 
latter. The Huasteca begins where the plains which border on the 
coast end, a succession of valleys separated by verdure- covered ter- 
races or hills increasing in height as they recede to the westward, 
rising within a distance of 100 miles from sea level to that of the cen- 
tral plateau, 6,000 feet above. This slope, with its valleys, receives 
the moisture of the breezes from the Gulf in the form of rain during 
the summer months and dew during those of fall and winter, render- 
ing them practically free from frost, drought, and excessive heat. 

aBernabe CoUado, in "Modern Mexico," November, 1903, and February, 1904. 



PASTURE LANDS. 217 

' ' The natural pasturage lands of the Huasteca foothills are as fine 
jjas any in the world. The rains of summer and the heavy dews of 
lautumn and winter, even in the driest months (April and May), are 
sufficient to prevent any notable deterioration in the quality of pastures. 
I "The South American and African grasses, para and guineo, develop 
;and flourish wonderfully in these foothills and are extensively planted. 
"The upland pastures of the central table-lands adapted to the breed- 
ing of stock are not sufficiently fertile to fatten more than a fraction 
;of the cattle that can be raised on them. The large interior markets 
I of Puebla and the City of Mexico, as well as Yucatan, which are the 
greatest purchasers of cattle raised on the eastern coast of Mexico, and 
; the great mining camps of the Republic, have maintained the price of 
beef cattle at figures which have made the industry immensely profit- 
ji able. The exportation through the port of Tampico by sea is, accord- 
\ ing to the latest figures available, 75,000 annually. This, however, 
does not take into consideration the large numbers shipped north into 
ji Texas for fattening and southwest by rail to the interior markets of 

I the Republic. 
"The ranges of the Pacific slope, through the territory of Tepic, 
Jalisco, Michoacan, Guerrero, and southern Oaxaca, are quite difi^er- 

! ent in character from those of the Gulf coast, the dry season on the 
Pacific slope being more rigorous than on the east. The aggregate 

[ amount of rainfall is but little less, but it is not so evenly distributed, 
so that greater provisions have to be made for water holes, tanks, etc. 
There is never a scarcity of pasture; but unless pains are taken to 
provide unfailing supplj^ of water, well distributed over the range, it 
will sometimes happen that the pasture in the vicinity of the water 
holes will be all eaten up, as the more broken character of the country 
in the western slope makes it difficult for cattle to go great distances 
for water. Although the western ranges are quite as accessible to 
the home markets as those of the Gulf coast, they are much farther 
away from foreign markets, as on the Pacific coast of the United 
States there is a comparativel}'^ small demand for beef, and for ship- 
ment to Texas, on account of the distance, purchasers prefer to buy 
on ranches nearer the border. 

"For these reasons pasture lands are held at lower figures through 
the Pacific slope of Michoacan, Guerrero, and southern Oaxaca than 
they are in the Huasteca, making it possible with an equal investment 
of capital to pasture a larger number of cattle. 

"At the beginning of the year 1903 there existed in the Republic, 
according to the returns made by the assessors, 3,424,430 sheep, with 
a valuation of $6,037,306. The possibilities are, however, that this 
return does not represent more than Q5 or 70 per cent of the sheep 
actually existing in the Republic, the valuation also being very low. 
Sheep on the range are worth from $2.75 to $4 per head, according to 
their quality. 



218 MEXICO. 

"The principal sheep-raising States of the Republic are Zacatecas, 
with 827,000 head; San Luis Potosi, with something over 400,000 head; 
and the following States raising over 100,000 head: Coahuila, Chi- 
huahua, Durango, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Mexico, Michoacan, Nuevo 
Leon, Puebla, Tamaulipas. 

"With the exception of Tamaulipas, which is in the extreme north- 
eastern part of the Republic, all of the sheep-raising States are partly 
or entirely located in the great central table-land. 

"Experience has demonstrated that although cattle apparently do 
better and are more profitable in the rank pasture lands of the coast 
ranges, that to be successful with sheep it is necessary to confine one's 
operations to the arid plains of the high lands. 

"Experiments have been made with sheep raising in the para grass 
regions of the foothills, and although in many instances for the first 
two or three years the herds are healthy and multiply rapidly, before 
long some of the epidemics due to overfeeding and damp soil break out. 

"On the table-lands, however, sheep are apparently exempt from 
epidemics, and the loss from predatory animals is comparatively 
insignificant. 

"When sheep are ranged over rented pasture, from 8 to 15 cents 
annually is paid per head, according to the abundance of pasturage. 

"It has been found by experience that in order to produce a fair 
qualit}^ of wool it is necessary to constantly improve stock by the 
introduction of graded or pure blood rams from Europe or the United 
States. Unimproved native stock which has been on the range for a 
series of years will not average much over the pound of wool per head 
annually, but graded stock will give from 2 to 8 pounds a head per 
year, according to age, class of pasture, and the quality of the sires. 

"It has also been found that the sheep degenerate very fast; in 
other words, that a flock of sheep that has been graded up so that it 
will produce 8 pounds per head per annum the first year will gradually 
decrease in production every year until it is a little above that of the 
unimproved native stock. 

"Some of the most intelligent sheep breeders make a practice of 
importing every year a certain number of Merino rams, which are 
most generally used for improving the range sheep, with the idea of 
keeping their flock up to a certain standard. 

"The breeding ewes average from one and one-quarter to one and 
one-half lambs per annum. Shepherds who take care ofjthe sheep on 
the range receive from $6 to $10 a month, and a small ration worth |4 
in excess of their monthly wages. The price of sheep purchased for 
butchering, on the range, varies between $3.75 and $4.50. In Mexico 
they are worth between $4.50 and $5.50 per head. 

"The Mexican wool is coarser than the better grades of United 
States merino wool. " 

Hog raising is said to be one of the most profitable industries in 



STATISTICS. 



219 



which the Mexican agriculturist can engage. The native hog is hard to 
fatten, but by the importation of improved stock this drawback may be 
promptly overcome. Of recent vears breeders have been doing this, 
and a marked advance has been made in the industry. 

The Federal District possesses fine pasture grounds, and the cattle 
industry is there carried on extensively, a large local trade in dairy 
products being one of the features of that section. 

The Mexican Government has given a concession for the privilege of 
establishing a permanent exposition and market for the sale of cattle 
to be located within the limits of the Federal District. The conces- 
sionaire is to invest $300,000, or 1135,000 gold. Accommodations are 
to be provided for 6,000 head of beef cattle, 10,000 hogs, 5,000 sheep 
and goats and 1,000 head of horses, mules, etc. The construction is to 
be completed in five years, and the concession is to last for fifty years. 

The Department of Promotion in Mexico has compiled statistics 
relative to cattle in the year 1902 containing many details, such as the 
geographical situation of each zone, elevation above the sea, number 
and value of cattle, distribution in States, etc. The statistics embrace 
not only bovine stock, but also horses, mules, asses, sheep, goats, and 
hogs, and show the estimated number and value of each class in the 
Republic at the beginning of 1903, as follows: 



Class. 


Number. 


Value. 


Cattle 


5,304,165 
872, 544 
340, 016 
298, 416 
3,458,124 
4,240,886 
641,074 


S84, 251, 275 


Horses 


10, 997, 667 


Mules 


10, 742, 478 


Asses 


2, 470, 547 


Sheep 


6, 096, 088 


Goats 


7, 303, 289 


Hogs - 


2, 194, 457 








Total 


15,115,225 


124, 055, 801 







The States which, according to these statistics, are at the present 
time the greatest cattle producers are Jalisco, Chihuahua, Guanajuato, 
Michoacan, Veracruz, Durango, Zacatecas, and Yucatan, as may be 
noted in the following table, which shows the value of the cattle pro- 
duced in each State of the Republic: 



state. 



Aguasealientes. 
Baja California 

Camp6clie 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Distrito Federal 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoac&n 

Morelos 



Value. 



$2, 302, 490 
1,042,121 
1, 226, 334 
4, 124, 472 
987, 048 
3, 310, 807 
9,215,465 
1,137,297 
7,573,741 
8, 840, 537 
2, 853, 608 
1, 136, 536 

13,333,922 
3,583,365 
8, 548, 954 
1,526,045 



State. 



Nuevo Le6n . . . 

Oaxaea 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

San Luis PotosI 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

Tlascala 

Veracruz 

Yucatdn 

Zacatecas 

Total 



Value. 



«3, 393, 625 
1, 786, 439 
4, 309, 904 
1, 705, 097 
4, 786, 411 
1,330,078 
4, 212, 861 
2,838,422 
3,981,152 
2, 356, 696 
974, 471 
8, 239, 375 
6, 076, 239 
6,324,289 



124,055,801 



220 



MEXICO. 



Consul-General Barlow, in his report before mentioned, gives the 
names of 60 American firms engaged in cattle breeding in Mexico. 

The number of stocii slaughtered for consumption in the Republic 
in the year 1902 is, according to the^'Anuario Estadistico," as follows: 



stock. 


Heads, 


Weight. 


Value. 


Beef cattle 


938, 583 

672,971 

1,031,256 

778, 618 


Kilos. 

154, 965, 564 

10, 466, 263 

17,296,711 

43,358,934 


$41, 976, 990 


Sheep 


2,887,134 
2,936,215 
14,194,449 




Hogs . . . 






Total 


3,321,428 


236, 087, 462 


61, 994, 788 







The consumption in the Federal District alone amounted to 351,161 
heads valued at $7,415,61:5. 



CHAPTER IX. 

MINES AND MINING, MINING LAWS, TAXES, ETC. 

Nature has richly endowed Mexico with resources well-nigh count- 
less, but in the bestowal of mineral resources she has been most lavish. 
Beneath the surface of that volcanic ridge raised between two great 
bodies of water lie buried treasures incomparable, and although 
innumerable mining enterprises have for nearly four hundred years 
exploited the metal-bearing regions and have extracted fabulous quan- 
tities of precious metals, by far the greater part is 3^et to be laid bare. 

At the beginning of the last century Humboldt estimated the mines 
in Mexico to number 3,000. In recent years hardly that many have 
been worked, but the extension of the railroads and the bringing into 
closer communication of remote sections of the country have brought 
about a revival of the interest in this great industry. 

The great mining region runs from the northwest to the southeast, 
following the direction of the Sierra Madre cordillera, extending from 
Sonora to the south of Oaxaca, a distance of about 2,574 kilometers. 
The immense parallelogram this region forms has a width of about 
402 kilometers. 

The richest mines have been discovered on the western slope of the 
Cordilleras at an elevation of about from 916 to 2,440 meters above sea 
level. 

Most of the historical mines are situated here, having been opened 
up by the Spaniards in 1526 and worked until 1700, with little for- 
mality and less science. 

The English first undertook mining operations in 1824, and con- 
ducted them for ten years with no very profitable results. 

DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS. 

In Chihuahua numberless mineral districts are known to exist con- 
taining copper, lead, mercury, silver, salt, and coal mines. Other 
minerals usually accompany the substances named, such as iron, zinc, 
antimony, arsenic, etc. In the district and near the city of Chihuahua 
is the celebrated Santa Eulalia mine, one of the oldest in the countr}^, 
the products of which have left a monument in the ver}^ handsome 
parish church of San Francisco, erected in the city between the years 
1717 and 1789 with the proceeds of a tax of 1 real (12i cents) on each 

221 



222 MEXICO. 

half pound of silver got from the mine. The total sum thus secured 
is stated to be $800,000. During the early part of the j^ear 1897 at 
the properties of the Gold Hill Mining Company, in the southwestern 
part of Chihuahua, the result of an experimental run of 100 tons of 
tailings from the surface ore of the Rosario mine was a 30-ounce bar 
of gold. So primitive were the methods employed by the original 
workers of the greater part of the Mexican mines that the Indians 
often make a fair living by working over the tailings. 

Sonora is one of the richest as well as most important mining centers. 
It is noted for its high-class metals, among which are gold, silver, mer- 
cury, and iron. Here abound the soft or lead ores, which are so easily 
worked and aid so materially in smelting. There are also other min- 
erals, such as asbestos, copperas, magnetic iron ore, muriate and car- 
bonate of soda, and saltpeter. Native silver is found in these districts 
in considerable quantities, and native iron has also been discovered 
in the Sierra Madre, Papagueria, and the vicinity of the Colorado 
River. 

Sonora has been turning out plenty of gold, the output having 
increased since the Yaqui Reservation has been thrown open. Rich 
placers are known to exist there, and it is expected that the influx of 
prospectors will be great in the near future. Over 200 prospectors 
went into the Yaqui country in August, 1897, and it is stated that an 
Arizona miner came out recently with $80,000, the product of the 
work of three men during three months. 

Sinaloa has also more than 700 mining districts, the mineral deposits 
being classified into six formations. Calciferous and quartz ore pre- 
vail, with silver in a native state or combined with sulphur, antimony, 
and arsenic, with more or less traces of gold. Veins of gold-bearing 
quartz exist in some localities, and deposits of iron ore, sulphite of 
lead, zinc, copper, and silica are to be found. 

The districts of Durango run mostly to silver, yet many other metals 
exist, such as talc and iron, the latter being found in inexhaustible 
quantities in the Cerro del Mercado, which is a solid mass of iron, 
averaging 6Q per cent pure. This deposit was discovered in 1562 by 
Vasquez del Mercado. The cerro, or hill, is 4,800 feet long, 1,100 
feet wide, and 640 feet high, and according to calculations, over 
300,000,000 tons of solid iron might be extracted from it. 

Jalisco is another silver-producing region, and furnishes also copper 
and lead ores and coal. 

Of the 96 districts in Michoacan only 66 were worked in 1902, due 
to the very limited population of the State and lack of the necessary 
capital. The principal deposits are of copper. In 1897 a company 
was formed in London, with a capital of $400,000, to carry on a gen- 
eral mining business in the Ario and Morelia districts of Michoacan. 

Zacatecas is the great silver-producing State. It is estimated that 



MINERAL WEALTH. 223 

in the last three centuries its many mines, which were first worked by 
the Spaniards in 1640, but which had previously been worked in a rude 
jway by the Indians, have yielded over a thousand million of dollars. 

Guerrero has always been considered as one of the richest mineral 
sections of America. Prospectors heretofore have been compelled to 
abandon rich discoveries on account of a lack of transportation facilities 
and scarcity of labor. The construction of the Mexico, Cuernavaca 
and Pacific Railway has opened up this wonderful country, with the 
result that large American companies have sent experts to investigate 
the marvelous wealth of this belt, which is comparatively unknown. 
Many natives in the State named make a living by washing out placer 
gold in the crudest possible manner. Experts announce that there is 
an abundance of gold in this portion of the country, and that the only 
need is the presence of intelligent prospectors to find it. The gold 
runs from 10 to 12i ounces to the ton. Copper is very abundant, and 
there are also rich carbonate of lead ores. 

The State of Oaxaca has long been recognized to be rich in gold, 
and much work has been done by the arrastra system, b}^ which a good 
deal of the metal was lost in the tailings. There is the best authority 
for the statement that some dumps there contain thousands of tons 
which will assay as high as an ounce to the ton. 

Guanajuato is another far-famed silver-producing State, and has 
been and still is the center of great exploitation. The district bearing 
the name of the State was discovered in 1548, and has been worked 
almost continuously ever since that date, the output of its mines 
reaching fabulous figures. Native gold has been discovered in this 
district, and the late denouncing and registering of mines has dis- 
closed the presence of other minerals, such as tin and bismuth. Pros- 
pecting is still going on, and not unfrequently is the news of another 
rich strike heralded abroad. The estimated annual output of the 
mines is $6,000,000. 

In the mineral district of Queretaro are to be found lead metals, 
cinnabar, and the ever-present silver. The mines are numerous and 
important. The celebrated San Juan Nepomuceno, or El Doctor mine, 
is situated here, in the Cadereyta district. It is one of the oldest and 
richest of Mexico, its production being so great two hundred years 
ago that it paid the Spanish Government $18,000,000 in taxes. It is 
in this State that the fine opals, which reflect every prismatic color and 
are much sought after, are found. Great beds of these stones exist 
on the celebrated hacienda of La Esperanza. Th^ opals from this 
place are sold in the City of Mexico by itinerant venders at remark- 
ably low prices.'* The most important deposit of these stones pro- 
duced some years ago from $80,000 to $100,000 a year. 

« Large opals can be bought in Queretaro for |2 each, and small ones for 50 cents. 



224 MEXICO. 

Th& State of Morelos has but one mineral district worthy the name, 
that of Huautla, which, like most of those in the country, is silver 
producing. 

Piaebla's districts yield native gold, silver, oxide of manganese, and 
pyrites, as well as coal and iron ore. Here also exist quarries of beau- 
tiful onyx and what is known as Puebla marble. This onyx is much 
used in the United States for decorating houses and in the jeweler's 
trade. In the mountains bordering on the States of Zacatecas, San 
Luis Potosi, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon extensive quarries of onyx and 
marble of most beautiful colors and varieties, equal in every way to 
the Puebla product, are being worked. 

Among the mineral regions in the eastern cordillera, that of Zome- 
lahuacan, in the State of Veracruz, deserves mention, three classes of 
metal being found there — lead, argentiferous copper, and iron. Gold 
nuggets have been secured there also, as well as very rich malachite 
in scattered veins, the mother vein not having been discovered up to 
date. 

The State of Mexico is rich in mines of native gold and silver, as 
well as those of copper, iron, oxide of iron, and manganese. 

The Territory of Lower California is rich in minerals. The penin- 
sula is barren and without water. The mountain ridge forming the 
backbone of the peninsula is a continuation of the coast range of Upper 
California and is interwoven almost over its entire extent with metallic 
veins of all descriptions. Near San Jose and Cape St. Lucas there are 
argentiferous and auriferous outcroppings and in the municipalities of 
La Paz, El Triunfo, and San Antonio veins of gold, silver, iron, and 
other substances are exhibited on the surface of the mountains. 

In the districts of Comondu, Loreto, San Luis, and Muleje, in the 
northern part of the peninsula, rich copper mines abound. The Boleo 
mines, situated in this part, have for years been the chief source of 
the copper supply. There are also other metals, such as mica, iron, 
tin, and oxides of iron, besides gypsum, enormous piles or hills of 
which are to be found, marble, alabaster, and sandstone. Gold was 
discovered near Santa Gertrudis, north of Muleje, about 1884, and it 
is said that the mountains and gulches in that vicinity have rich veins 
of this metal. 

In this district there are also solid mountains of iron. The frontier 
district of Lower California is noted for its gold diggings and ledges, 
mica, and other mineral substances, such as sulphur, soda, and salt. 
American capitalists are largely interested in this region. 

Besides the mfnerals named, there are in the peninsula plumbago, 
sulphuret of lead, porphyry, prismatic pyrites, sulphur, oxide of anti- 
monj and lead, carbonate and phosphate of lead, hydroxide of iron, 
and hydrosilicate of copper. Near Todos Santos some lime quarries 
exist. 



PRECIOUS STONES. 225 

The State of Hidalg-o deserves more extended mention here, as it 
was in one of its districts that a miner discovered the patio process 
for reducing ores — a process which to this day is most in use in Mexico, 
and one which no miner or mining engineer has been able to super- 
sede by a more economical one for reducing the peculiar ores in which 
that country abounds. The great mineral district of this State is situ- 
ated in the vicinity of Pachuca, the principal mines being the Real del 
Monte, Atontolico el Chico, and Zimapan. 

Pachuca, with its rich cluster of mines, lies on a plain about 60 
miles from the City of Mexico, and is one of the oldest mining centers 
in the country, having been worked for more than three and one-half 
centuries. The district within which it lies now has a population of 
100,000, a large proportion of which is Indian miners. It was here 
that the yatio process of amalgamation was discovered by the cele- 
brated Mexican miner, Bartolome de Medina, in 1557. The very 
hacienda de heneficio, or reduction works, where this discover}'' was 
made are still to be seen in the town. 

Sulphate of silver is the prevailing metal, although native silver 
mixed with ore is found in some of the mines of this district. Most 
of these mines, as well as those in other States, are still operated in 
the primitive Mexican fashion. The metal is brought up in rawhide 
sacks by means of ropes made of the fiber of the maguey wound about 
a large malacate (horse or mule windlass), and the peons or laborers 
carry pieces of ore weighing sometimes between 100 and 200 pounds 
on their backs from "headings" of the levels to the main shaft. Some 
foreigners are employed in the mines of Pachuca and elsewhere at good 
wages, but they generally are superintendents, engineers, bosses, etc. 

There are in the Republic abundant sulphur deposits, particularly 
those of Popocatapetl, Pico de Orizaba, and Tajimaroa, several deposits 
of salt, rock crystal, marble, jasper, fine building stone, and the beau- 
tiful onyx of Tecali. 

The most celebrated salt deposits of Mexico are those of Penon 
Blanco, in San Luis Potosi, their product containing from 70 to 80 per 
cent of chloride of sodium. On the coasts of both oceans there are also 
a great number of salt mines, the most useful being those of Yucatan, 
whence comes the salt for reducing the product of the mines of Hidalgo. 

Mexico also has deposits of precious stones, such as the opal, topaz, 
emerald, agate, amethyst, and garnet. It is related that one of the 
heroes of Mexican independence. General Guerrero, possessed some 
diamonds which had been given him by one of his soldiers, who had 
found them during an expedition in that part of the Sierra Madre 
running through the State of Guerrero. The field or locality whence 
came these precious stones, of which the General gave but vague infor- 
mation, has been vainly sought by various prospectors. 
509a— 04 15 



226 



MEXICO. 



The most interesting fact in connection with the mining industry of 
Mexico is the recent increase in her gold output. In 1893 the value 
of the gold produced was only 3f per cent of that of the silver. In 
1894 it rose to about 14 per cent; in 1901-2 it was 20 per cent. 

Exports of gold 'bullion. — The exports of gold bullion from Mexico 
since 1888-89, according to Mexican official figures, have been as 
follows: 



Year. 



1888-89 
1889-90 
1890-91 
1891-92 
1892-93 
1893-94 
1894-95 



Value 
(Mexican 

silver). 



S349, 506 
457, 608 
612, 618 
751, 407 
357, 887 
155,954 
4, 139, 645 



1895-96 85, 246, 418 



1896-97. 

1897-98. 

1898-99... 

1899-1900. 

1900-1901. 

1901-2.... 



Vatue 

(Mexican 

silver). 



6, 858, 366 
6, 364, 308 
7, 347, 760 
7, 225, 615 
8, 738, 263 
9,141,294 



The late Don Matias Romero, when Mexican Minister at Washington, 
predicted that Mexico is destined to become one of the largest pro- 
ducers of gold in the world, basing his prediction on the fact that here- 
tofore the mining of gold has been merely an incident of the extraction 
of silver, and that when the amount of yellow metal in silver was small 
it was not separated; but since the value of gold has appreciated to 
so great a degree the mining of the metal has assumed much larger 
proportions. .9 

Silver lyrodxiction. — As regards the production of silver, according Ji 
to the "International Economist," of Berlin, quoted by the Consul- "^ ' 
General of the United States at Frankfort in his report of November 
29, 1899: " Enormous quantities of silver still come from the chief 
producing countries — Mexico and the United States — and Mexico 
especially seems to be inexhaustible." The figures given for Mexico, 
in the article quoted, are as follows: 



Year. 



1896 . 
1897, 



Ounces, 
fine. 



45, 710, 982 
53, 903, 180 



Year. 



Ounces, 
fine. 



56, 738, 000 



Exports of silver huUion. — The exports of silver bullion since 1888-89 
are as follows: 



Year. 



1888-89 
1889-90 
1890-91 
1891-92 
1892-93 
1893-94 
1894-95 



Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 



$6, 629, 260 
7, 259, 956 
6,751,217 
6, 559, 668 
5, 148, 202 
3, 130, 823 

18, 803, 867 



1895-96. . 
1896-97.. 
1897-98. . 
1898-99.. 
1899-1900 
1900-1901 
1901-2... 



Value 

(Mexican 

silver). 



fl;26, 345, 160 
32, 137, 257 
35,721,275 
40, 429, 954 
52, 116, 284 
53,036,016 
48, 021, 133 



MINING PEOPEETIES. 



227 



Mineral production. — Data collected from official and other sources 
pY the mineral production during the fiscal year 1902-3 show the 
bllowing condition of the mining industry in the Kepublic. 

The extent of mining properties under operation for the fiscal year 
jnding June 30, 1903, together with the classification of the ores, was 
's follows: 



Ores. 



Number 
of prop- 
erties. 



Hectares. 



lold 

rold and silver, 
.ilver. 



Sold, silver, and copper, 
fcrold, silver, and lead . . . 

Sold and copper 

Silver and copper 

ISilver, copper, and lead . 

'jilver, lead 

iJilver, manganese 

•silver, mercury 

\ntimony 

Sulphur 

;:!opper 

Jopper, iron 

ZJopper, lead 

Tin 



[ron 

Manganese . 
Mercury . 



Mickel, cobalt . 
Opal. 



Lead 

Sal gem 

Tellurium . 
Turquoise . 
ijZinc 



Total 



1,298 

1345 

4,904 

720 

712 

218 

624 

255 

2,723 

4 

6 

47 

94 

765 

151 

22 

30 

265 

13 

146 

1 

17 

61 

4 

1 

1 

1 



17, 428 



213, 701 



i{ Distrihution. — The distribution b}^ States of these mining properties 
is shown in the following table: 



'' . 


Number 
of prop- 
erties. 


Hectares. 


Ares. 


CENTRAL STATES. 

Aguascalientes 


188 

2,558 

764 

542 

876 

55 

143 

125 

349 

3 

1,512 


997 

22, 924 

9,478 

4,116 

4,980 

680 

1,826 

1,954 

7,484 

30 

15,825 


13 


Durango 


49 


Guanajuato 


62 


Hidalgo 


93 


Mexico 


18 


Morelos 


34 


Puebla 


88 


Queretaro 


48 


San Luis Potosi . . 


76 


Tlaxcala 


9 


Zacatecas 


86 






Total 


6,615 


70, 299 


67 






NOKTHERN STATES. 

Goahuila 


519 

2,814 

494 

2,299 


10,239 

30, 853 

9,636 

40, 528 


69 


Chihuahua 


68 


Nuevo Le6n 


32 


Sonera 


84 






Total 


6,126 


91,258 


53 






GULP STATES. 

Tamaulipas 


89 
51 


2,021 

778 


32 


Veracruz 


60 






Total 


140 


2,799 


99 







228 



MEXICO. 



Number 
of prop- 
erties. 



Hectares. 



Ares 



PACIFIC STATES, 



Lower California Territory. 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Guerrero 

Jalisco 

Michoacto 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Tepic Territory 



555 
26 
18 
595 
851 
419 
1,082 
786 
215 



5,357 

471 

274 

8,265 

6,149 

11, 900 

8,820 

6,538 

1,666 



Total 



4,547 



49, 343 



BEOAPITULATION. 



Central States . . . 
Northern States . 

Gulf States 

Pacific States — 



6,615 

6,126 

140 

4,547 



70, 299 

91, 258 

2,799 

49, 343 



Total 



17,428 



213, 701 



Number of mining properties with respective titles on June 30, 1903 17, 428 8' 

Number on June 30, 1902 14, 539 t 



Extension of the properties held — 



June 30, 1903 . 
June 30, 1902 . 



Increase 



Hectares. 



213, 701 
172, 696 



Value of mineral production. — The value in round numbers of the 
mineral production of Mexico in the fiscal year 1902-3 was as follows: 

Silver $82, 300, 000 

Gold -- 32,500,000 

Copper and copper ores 19, 600, 000 

Lead and lead ores 5, 670, 000 

Antimony, antimony ores. _ 1, 139, 000 

Asphalt and coal 35, 000 

Other minerals 150, 000 

Marbles 200,000 

Total production in 1902-3 141, 594, 000 

Mineral production fiscal year 1901-2 113, 057, 000 

Increase - - . - . 28, 537, 000 

The figures relating to gold and silver embrace the amounts exported 
and used for coinage in mints, exclusive of the minerals applied to 
home commercial consumption, such as quicksilver, iron, copper, lead, 
etc., and also the gold and silver used in the home industries. 

Claims. — The number of mining claims registered during the cal- 
endar year 1902 was 16,430, covering 196,225 hectares, and embracing 
the following mineral substances: 



EXPORTS. 



229 



Mineral substances. 



Gold 

Gold and silver 

Gold, silver, and copper 
Gold, silver, and lead . . . 

Gold and copper 

Silver 

Silver and copper 

Silver, copper, and lead. 

Silver and lead 

Silver and manganese . . 

Silver and mercury 

Copper 

Copper and lead 

Copper and iron 

Lead 

Iron 

Tin 

Mercury 

Zinc 

Antimony 

Manganese 

Sulphur 

Tellurium 

Turquoise 

Opal 

Sal gem 

Total 



Mining 
properties. 



1,195 

3,892 

642 

630 

194 

4,882 

615 

224 

2,616 

3 

5 

745 

25 

126 

61 

227 

25 

146 

1 

53 
9 
90 
1 
1 
18 



Area, 
liectares. 



13, 881 

35, 255 

12, 618 

7,403 

2,641 

41, 744 

9,470 

3,339 

27,985 

35 

49 

22, 193 

545 

2,350 

714 

5, 692 

501 

4,776 

15 

2,119 

95 

2, 6.57 

3 

4 

45 

110 



196, 250 



It is stated upon reliable authority that while Mexico has produced 
a fabulous amount of the precious metals during the past four hundred 
years, there are still man}^ sections of the country where the ground 
has not even been broken. 

Exports. — The exports of copper and copper ores per month in the 
fiscal year 1902-3 were as follows: 





Copper. 


Copper ores. 




Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


1902. 
July 


Kilos. 
1,861,411 
5, 762, 546 
5,243,069 
3,922,427 
4,669,625 
6, 714, 599 

3, 752, 167 
4,. 572, 117 
5,360,181 
4, 626, 100 
1,463,923 
6,712,594 


$485,366.25 
1,933,001.16 
1,723,956.64 
1, 317, 681. 92 
1,523,176.49 
2,195,060,32 

1,534,221.50 
1,346,832.56 
2, 045, 049. 95 
1,438,635.07 
683, 307. 68 
2, 128, 653. 71 


KUos. 

1,263 

414 

917,947 

214, 143 


$105 00 


August . . ... 


''S 00 


September 


9, 300. 00 
2 160 00 


October . 


November 




December 






1903. 

January 

February 


625 


53.00 


March 


1,680,266 


587 794 40 


April 




Mav 






June 


2,042,757 


661 811 67 






Total 


54,660,749 


18,363,943.15 


4,911,305 


1, 261, 249. 27 






Year. 


Copper 1 y J 
exports. 1 \^a.iue. 


1902-3 


Tons. 
54,660 
40,312 


$18, 353, 943 
12,466,434 


1901-2 










Increase 


14 348 


5, 887, 496 









230 MEXICO. 

The exports of other mineral products in 1902-3 compared with 
1901-2 were: 



Lead, 98,942 tons . 

Lead ores 

Antimony 

Antimony ores . . . 
Asphalt and coal , 
Marbles 



Value. 



1902-3. 



m, 668, 228. 00 

2, 909. 95 

823, 996. 00 

315, 118. 00 

35, 127. 00 

150, 646. 00 



Total 6, 996, 023. 95 



1901-2. 



85,722,045.59 



354,281.59 
19,041.70 
98,550.00 



6,193,918. 



To the foregoing' must be added the value of small lots of mineral 
products exported during the fiscal year 1902-3, which did not exceed 

1200,000. 

MINING METHODS. 

There are five processes for the reduction of ore in use in Mexico — 
the patio^ tonel^ lixiviation^ fuego, and j>an^ the jjatio and lixiviation 
being those most in vogue. 

Patio process. — The i?atio process, invented, as before stated, by 
Bartolome de Medina, consists of amalgamation with quicksilver. 
This system of treating ore is as follows: 

The ore is brought from the mine in large pieces and carried to a 
covered box, where it is pounded to pieces by immense wooden crush- 
ers, provided at the end with heavy iron pestles, and working on arms 
connected with an axle, operated by horsepower. The iron pestles 
reduce the ore to pieces, which fall upon a sieve made of hide, the 
smaller fragments passing through it, while the larger are placed back 
in the box to be crushed again. There are generally several of these 
crushers in a straight line, working alternately. After the ore has 
been crushed in the mortars {morteros) it passes to the mill {taliones)., 
which consists of a round vat placed on a level with the floor. Here 
the ore is ground up into fine dust by means of three heavy and hard 
granite stones, oblong in shape and connected with a revolving shaft 
operated by horsepower. 

By the gradual addition of water during this process of pulverization 
a muddy mass is formed, which at the proper time is thrown out into 
\}c\& patio (yard), which has a floor made of hard cement or stone where 
the mud is treated by the addition of quicksilver and strong brine 
called caldo. It is thus left in the open air, exposed to the heat of the 
sun, for some twenty or thirty days, being stirred every day b}^ men 
and horses tramping over it until the quicksilver and the salt are well 
incorporated to the ore. This substance is called torta de lama (cake 
of mud), and when the process of mixing is completed the mud is 
carried to the lavadero (washing place) and placed in vats, where it is 



, SILVER ORES. 231 

washed, leaving in the vats what is csiWed platapifta (amalgamated sil- 

1 ver), containing quicksilver. This amalgam is then placed into stout 

I canvas bags and submitted to a heavy pressure to extract the mercury, 

' and when this operation is completed it is placed in the oven, where 

the silver is purified. 

An additional process connected with this system in the reduction 
of certain kinds of ores is employed after the mineral has been exposed 
to the sun in the patio, or yard, when it is transferred to the^J/cm^7?c>, 
which is an inclined plane in the open air, having a solid stone floor 
some 60 feet long and 20 feet wide. The workmen are engaged all 
along this inclined plane in throwing small quantities of water on the 
lama, so that the mud runs off to a ditch, while the silver remains at 
the foot of the plane. This method requires skill, as the water must 
be added gradually. The silver and the remaining muddy mass is 
carried to a large iron boiler where it is heated and stirred until the. 
evaporation of the liquid is accomplished. At the proper stage of this 
operation the remaining substance is taken to the amalgamating room, 
where the quicksilver is added, which unites with the silver. The 
mass resulting is then washed again, only the amalgam of silver and 
mercur}^ remaining, which is further purified in a furnace and the 
silver run into molds. 

Lixiviatmi process. — In the method of lixiviation, which is adopted 
in several of the States, the rock is crushed dry and passed through 
screens of twentj^ to thirty meshes to the inch. It is then roasted in 
reverberator}^ furnaces with salt. The roasted ore is then subjected 
to the water process, being kept in large tanks or tubs, constantly 
covered and run over by clear water during a number of hours, after 
which the water is drawn off and a cold solution of hyposulphate of 
soda is made to pass through the ore until it is ascertained that the 
solution carries no more silver. The silver carried by the hyposul- 
phate solution is precipitated by the addition to that solution of another 
solution of quicklime and sulphur, known as calcium sulphide, which 
is made by boiling lime and sulphur. After the precipitation and the 
running off of the precipitating liquid the silver appears as a sulphide, 
is put into canvas filters, dried, roasted in reverberatory furnaces to 
carry off the sulphur, and then melted into bars. If the operation is 
carefully performed the bullion resulting will be from 900 to 1,000 
fine. The solution is pumped back into the tanks to be used again. 

Silver ores. — There are several kinds of silver ore taken from the 
mines. Some of the principal varieties ■dxe plata hlanca (white silver), 
which is the rarest and best; plata verde (green silver), united with 
copper; hronces (bronzes), united with iron; 'plomosos (lead), united 
with lead, a very soft ore; caliches (chalk), united with a chalk}^ sub- 
stance very greatly resembling the common white limestone, but which 
is rich in silver and easily worked. Previous to the passage of the 



232 MEXICO. 

tariff bill of 1890, generally known as the McKinley bill, and tlie suc- 
ceeding tariff bills, silver-bearing lead ore was brought from Mexico 
to the United States for reduction. These bills put a heavy duty on 
such ores, and have caused companies to form in the latter country to 
establish smelting works in different parts of Mexico. Millions of 
dollars have been invested by American capitalists in this industry. 

Wages for miners. — Wages for miners range all the way from 31^ 
cents to $1.50 per day, the workmen being mostly peones (day laborers). 
Superintendents, ore treaters, etc., are generally Americans, Swedes, 
or Germans. 

MINING DEVELOPMENT. 

President Diaz in his message to Congress September 16, 1903, refers 
to the development of mining in the following language: 

"Mining continues to progress, in spite of the depreciation and fluc- 
tuation in the price of silver, which is mining's chief product. During 
the last fiscal year 4,132 title deeds to mining properties were issued, 
embracing an area of 61,396 hectares, which is an increase of 524 title 
deeds and 736 hectares as compared with the previous year. 

" In the period that has elapsed since my last message three contracts 
have been entered into for the exploitation of all kinds of minerals in 
Jalisco, Lower California, and Zacatecas, and another for the estab- 
lishment of reduction works, while the contract for the exploitation of 
sulphur in the mining camp of Cerritos was amended. 

"The exploitation of ores, other than those containing gold, silver, 
lead, copper, and iron, is being undertaken, for recently various title 
deeds have been issued for mines of cobalt, nickel, tin, bismuth, and 
principally antimon3^ Of the latter metal alone 5,351 tons of ore, 
yielding 2,150 tons of antimony, were treated in the Wadley smelter 
at San Luis Potosi alone." 

Consul-General Barlow, in his report of October 29, 1902,« referring 
to the amount of American capital invested in Mexico, says the follow- 
ing, relating to mining: 

"Next in importance to the railroads, from the standpoint of Amer- 
ican capital invested, is the mining industry. Since the time of Cortes 
mining has been the principal source of Mexico's wealth. The amount 
invested by Americans in mining in Mexico may be stated, in round 
figures, at $80,000,000. 

"This is a comparatively small percentage of the total amount of 
capital invested in Mexican mining properties, yet a large amount of 
this 180,000,000 is invested in up-to-date mining machinery, which is 
competently handled; and Mexico's mineral wealth has been greatly 
increased by this American investment. Mines that were given up 
years ago and mines that could not be worked at all on account of the 

«" United States enterprises in Mexico," Commercial Relations of the United 
States, 1902, Vol. I, p. 433. 



COAL AND PETEOLEUM. 233 

low grade of the ores can now be profitably worked by the newer 
methods, for which Mexico is mostly indebted to Americans. The 
increased output of Mexican mines, as well as the opening up of new 
mining districts, is largely due to Americans, both through the 
improved mining methods and through the development of the coun- 
try by railroads built by our capital. Thus, taken on the whole, 
American capital is a stronger factor in Mexico's principal industry 
than the amount invested indicates on the surface. 

"From the analysis it is seen that Sonora has the largest amount of 
capital invested in any one State of Mexico — $27,800,000. For the 
purpose of these comparisons, a rough estimate is made of the value 
of the capital in cases where it is left blank in the tables. From data 
obtainable this general statement may be held to be reliable. 

"Chihuahua comes next, with $21,000,000. The amount— $6,000, - 
000 — credited to the Federal District does not represent the amount 
invested within the Federal District, for that is practically nothing, 
but represents the capital invested in all parts of the Republic by 
various mining companies having main offices in the City of Mexico. 
Therefore the State of Durango ranks third in importance with regard 
to the amount of American capital invested in its mining industry, 
with 16,500,000. Coahuila is next, with an even $6,000,000 of Amer- 
ican capital invested." 

The number of American firms engaged in mining, according to the 
same report, is 290. All the States are represented, the principal, as 
regards the number of firms, being Sonora 62, Chihuahua 45, Sinaloa 
30, Federal District 24, Durango 23, Oaxaca 17, Jalisco 16, Nuevo 
Leon and Zacatecas 11 each. 

COAL, PETROLEUM, ETC. 

Mexican geologists affirmed for many years that no mineral coal 
existed in their country. About the year 1881, however, reports from 
several parts of the country claimed that anthracite coal had been dis- 
covered, and many specimens of what was supposed to be this mineral 
were sent to the National College of Engineers to be assayed. Much 
enthusiasm was aroused by these reports, and the Department of Pro- 
motion appointed scientific commissions to visit the alleged coal local- 
ities and report thereon. The labors of thes6 commissions proved that 
coal did exist, assaying from 41 to 92 per cent, the latter in the State 
of Sonora. It was to this coal that General Rosecrans gave the name 
of black gold. The commissions discovered and reported on anthra- 
cite deposits in Sonora, Michoacan, Veracruz, Guerrero, Oaxaca, 
Puebla, and other States. 

The excitement and enthusiasm thus created led to the formation of 
many coal companies, and many persons looked forward to the amass- 
ing of fortunes out of collieries, but the results were not great. This 



234 MEXICO. 

enthusiasm was succeeded by a state of depression and inactivity by 
the discovery that the seams of coal brought to light were poor, and 
that the reports and rumors were exaggerated. Want of means of 
communication between the deposits and the markets also had much to 
do with the quiescent state. The depression continued until profitable 
coal deposits were unearthed in Coahuila. These deposits occur, geo- 
logically speaking, in the Cretaceous formation, and are divided into 
two beds, the Upper and the Lower. The product of these fields has 
been used to supply coke for the use of smelters in several Mexican 
States, and some coal has been shipped to the United States through 
the port of Piedras Negras. Throughout this region the coal measures 
are considerably disturbed by faults and foldings, and the seams are 
irregular in width, having many barren areas between them. 

Along the Gulf of California, extending north to the Arizona line, 
in the State of Sonora, coal was found and used b}'' local silver smelters 
as early as the year 1870. In 1890 an English company secured a 
concession of 4,000,000 acres of land in this belt. Through failure to 
carry out the terms of the concession it was forfeited, and a Mexican 
company was organized to carry on the proposed work, but has done 
little of importance. 

The coal is anthracite and semianthracite, containing from 8 to 15 
per cent ash and sulphur, according to reported analyses. 

Up to 1890 some 59 coal mines had been opened up in the State of 
Puebla, but poor facilities for transportation, difficulties encountered 
in mining, and the rather poor quality of the coal conspired to prevent 
great activity being shown, despite the desire of the State government 
to foster and advance the industry. 

It is reported that during the fall of 1897 fairly good coal fields had 
been discovered near Colombia, State of Nuevo Leon, and that they 
were to be worked, a concession having been already requested to 
build a short railway line to the fields. 

According to Mexican official publications there are in the State of 
Oaxaca several known deposits of coal, which is also to be found in the 
States of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, Michoacan, Tlaxcala, Sonora, 
Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Morelos, Queretaro, Jalisco, and Coahuila. 
Peat is found in Sonora, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Puebla, and elsewhere. 
It abounds on the banks of the Tololotlan River near Lake Chapala, 
and in the valley of Mexico. Lignite, or' brown coal, is found in 
Puebla, Tlaxcala, Veracruz, Hidalgo, Chihuahua, Guerrero, Morelos, 
Queretaro, Jalisco, and Coahuila. 

Petrolewn and asphaltum. — The territory of Mexico abounds in 
deposits of asphaltum and liquid petroleum. These deposits have not 
been, until recently, worked to any great extent. 

The entire Atlantic coast of the country shows traces of oil and 
asphaltum, which there goes b}^ the name of chapapote. In the north- 



MINING LAWS. 235 

ern part of the Eepublic, between the foothills and the coast, there 
exist springs and deposits of the substances named. 

The deposits of asphaltum in the vicinity of Tuxpam and Tampico 
are excellent in quality, and from them the merchants of the coast have 
shipped, at various times, small quantities to the United States and 
Europe. This asphalt may be easily broken into blocks and floated 
down the river to the seacoast, where it may be collected and laden on 
ships. At Huasteca and on Lake Chapala, as well as on the Cham- 
payan Lagoon in Tamaulipas, asphalt is to be found. 

Crude petroleum springs running f reel}'' are to be found on the banks 
of several rivers, the oil flowing into these and covering their surface 
for some distance. Samples of this oil have been assayed in Pennsyl- 
vania, and are reported to be of a quality equal to the crude product 
of that State. Late in 1896 the United States consul at Matamoros 
reported to the Department of State ^* the discover}^, about 300 miles 
from his post, of "the richest asphalt flield known," where there were 
"about 20 wells which have a continuous flow of mineral tar, as the 
analj^sis (made at the Universit}" of Texas) call it. The ground for 
over 20 miles square is covered with asphalt deposits. The nearby 
streams have the whole year round a fatt}^, oily substance flowing 
into them from the surrounding mountains, making the water unfit to 
drink. From all indications there must be a large deposit of petroleum 
and coal under this asphalt field." 

Mineral oils and petroleum have been found in many other localities, 
principally in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo, Lake Chapala, Puerto 
Angel, and Pochutla, in the State of Oaxaca; in Otzumatlan, Michoa- 
can, and in several other places. 

Under date of June 15, 1898, a concession was granted to a London 
firm by the Mexican Government for the establishment of the indus- 
tr}^ of petroleum extraction, according to the provisions of which the 
said grant was to hold for a period of ten years. 

Petroleum seems to have been found in Tehuantepec. The deposit 
is situated about midway on the line of the railway from Coatzacoalcos 
to Salina Cruz. The owners of the land have opened a provisional 
well for the purpose of collecting as large a quantit}^ of the oil as pos- 
sible, and called an expert to analyze the product. His report was 
favorable, and the owners of the land have ordered the necessary 
machinery for the purpose of beginning the extraction and refining of 
the petroleum as soon as possible. 

New mines and mineral deposits are being constantly found in all of 
the mining sections of the country. 

MINING LEGISLATION. 

Mining legislation in Mexico has been undergoing a logical and 
radical evolution since 1884. In the colonial period from 1521 to 1821 

"United States Consular Eeports, Vol. LII, p. 619. 



236 MEXICO. 

the primitive mining legislation of New Spain consisted of several 
isolated rulings. One of the most remarkable was that issued by 
Charles 11. and later contirmed by Phillip II, establishing the equality 
of rights between the natives and the Spaniards. During the eleven 
years of the war of independence, terminating in 1821, the mining 
industry was partially paralyzed. When national autonomy was finally 
established all minerals were declared to belong to the nation, but the 
ancient rulings continued in force with all their inconveniences, taxes 
were increased, and consequently mining developed on even a smaller 
scale than in the colonial period. When the Federal Republic was 
established in ISoT the definite political constitution was formed, and 
according to it each State could legislate in regard to mining freely 
and independently of each other. This state of affairs was discoura- 
ging and consequently the working of the mines ceased to a great 
extent. 

A few years prior to 1S81 the country began to experience trouble 
through the fall of silver, and on December 15, 1883, Congress author- 
ized the Executive to issue a mining code for the Republic. This 
code was promulgated in 1881, and although it was based upon the 
principle of the former rulings, still it gave greater freedom to the 
working of the mines. In 188T the mining industry felt the effect of 
the monetary situation above referred to and the law of June 6 of 
that year was enacted, exempting iron, quicksilver, and coal mines 
from taxation, certain necessary articles were relieved of import 
duties, and the Executive was authorized to execute special contracts. 
The monetary crisis having become acute, the law of June 4, 1892, 
was enacted with a view of facilitating the working and increasing 
and cheapening the production of the silver mines. This law is still 
in force. 

The following table shows the relative exportation and production 
of ores, bullion, and Mexican coin during the several periods: 

Legislation of the States (from 1880-81 to 1884-85) |126, 771,390 

Mining code, 1884 (1885 to 1889-90) 167,993,780 

Law of 1892 in force (1898 to 1901-2) 556,992,617 

Mining laiv. — The mining law now in force in Mexico was promul- 
gated on June 1, 1892. Its leading provisions are as follows: 

A concession is required for working the mineral substances here 
enumerated: Gold, platinum, silver, quicksilver, iron (except marsh 
ores, loose surface ores, and ochers worked as coloring matter), lead, 
copper, tin (except float tin), zinc, antimony, nickel, cobalt, manganese, 
bismuth, and arsenic, either in their native state or mineralized. Also 
precious stones, rock salt, and sulphur. 

Combustible minerals, mineral oils and waters, rocks on the land, 
either separated or as building or ornamental materials; earths, sand, 
and clays of all kinds, and mineral substances not elsewhere specified 



MINING LAWS. 



237 



may be freely worked by the owner of the ground where they exist 
without a special concession in any case. Surface or subterranean 
excavations that the working- of an}' of these substances may require 
are subject to the regulations relating to the order and safety of 
mines. 

Payment of the Federal property tax, prescribed by the law relating 
thereto, will convey the fee title to all mining property legally acquired 
under this law. Mining property, except in the case of placers or 
surface deposits, is understood to refer solely to the underground 
work and not to the surface, which remains under the jurisdiction of 
its owner, save such parts thereof as may de needed by the miner, 
relating to which the law makes sundry provisions. 

A mine can not be worked beyond its prescribed boundaries, save 
when the adjacent ground is unoccupied, and then only conformably 
to the regulations and after petitioning for an enlargement of the con- 
cession. In order to occupy another's land his permission is indispen- 
sablv necessary, except in the case of easements. 

"Water brought to the surface by reason of underground work shall 
belong to the mine owner; but the general provisions of law must be 
observed with respect to the rights of the owners of the land over 
which the same may flow. 

Mining operations being deemed of public utility, in case of failure 
to agree condemnation proceedings may be resorted to for the acquire- 
ment of the necessary ground. 

Should efforts on the part of mine concessionaires to make arrange- 
ments with landowners looking to the occupancy of the necessary por- 
tion of ground to conduct the working of placers or surface deposits 
or to construct buildings and other mine appurtenances fail, condem- 
nation proceedings must be instituted before the local court of the first 
instance, where the proceedings shall be as follows: 

Each party shall name an appraiser, who shall, within eight days, 
reckoned from the date of appointment, present his respective report. 
In case of disagreement the court shall appoint an umpire, who shall 
also file his report within eight days after his appointment. Within 
the next ensuing eight days the court, after considering the opinions 
of the appraisers and the evidence submitted by the parties, shall 
determine the extent of ground to be occupied and the amount of 
indemnity to be paid. From this decision no appeal lies. 

Should the owner of the land fail to name his appraiser within eight 
days after notice from the court, the latter shall on its own motion, 
appoint one to represent the owner's interests. 

Should the ownership of the property to be occupied be uncertain 
or doubtful, the court shall set as the amount of indemnity such sum 
as may be agreed upon by the appraiser appointed by the grantee of 
the mine and the one designated by the court to represent the legal 



238 MEXICO. 

owner, the sum being deposited to be delivered to the party entitled 
thereto. 

The appraisers shall base their valuations upon the value of the land, 
the injuries immediatel}^ accruing to it, and the easements attachable 
thereto. 

Mining properties and adjoining lands shall enjoy and suffer, as the 
case may be, the easements of way, water rights, drainage, and venti- 
lation, the courts being guided in the matter of adjudication and indem- 
nity by the lex loci^ where the same does not conflict with the rules 
which are laid down in this law. 

Every inhabitant of the Republic may freely explore the national 
territory for the purpose of discovering mineral deposits, but should 
excavations be made in lieu of borings, the former shall not exceed 10 
meters in length or depth. No permit is necessary, but previous notice 
must be given to the proper authority. 

No prospecting ma}^ be done on private propert}^ without leave of 
the owner or his representative. In case permission is not obtainable, 
it ma}^ be asked of the proper executive officer, who may grant the 
same pursuant to th6 regulations, bond being previously furnished b}'^ 
the prospector to answer for all damages, such bond to be to the satis- 
faction of the ofla.cer after hearing the owner of the land or his repre- 
sentative. 

No prospecting may be carried on within private buildings or their 
appurtenances except by leave of the owner; neither shall mining 
explorations be conducted within the limits of towns or cities, nor 
within or in the neighborhood of public buildings and fortifications. 

The unit of concession, or mining claim, shall hereafter consist of a 
prismatic body of indefinite depth, forming on the surface a horizontal 
square having sides 100 meters in length, and bounded below the sur- 
face b}^ the four corresponding vertical planes. 

The mining claim is indivisible in all contracts affecting mining- 
grants or ownership thereof. 

Unless the original prospector shall petition therefor within three 
months, mining grants shall be made to the first applicant and shall 
embrace, wherever there is sufficient unoccupied ground, the number 
of claims petitioned b}^ the interested party, who should always clearly 
specify, in accordance with the regulations, the actual location of the 
claims constituting his grant. 

Should a space less than the unit of concession lie between the newly 
granted claims and others previously conveyed, such space shall also 
be granted in fee to the first applicant. 

Applications for mining grants should be filed with the special agents 
appointed in the States, Territories, and Federal District bj^the Depart- 
ment of Promotion. These agents are authorized to collect the fees 
prescribed in the Department schedule. 



MINING LAWS. 



239 



The agents shall receive the applications, immediately recording the 
lay and hour of filing. They shall then publish the application, cause 
he claims to be surveyed by the engineer or expert by them desig- 
lated, and should no objection be filed, they shall forward a copy of 
he record and plan to the Department of Promotion for approval and 
ssuance of the patent. 

The record having been approved and the patent issued, the grantee 
inters at once upon the mining claims without further formality. 

The agents are prohibited from suspending the record in its regular 
course for any reason whatever, except in the event of objection; and 
:he periods established by the regulations having expired, they are 
30und to transmit at once a copy of the record, in whatever stage it 
nay be, to the department, so that, after examination, it may dismiss 
:he application for want of diligence should it so find, or hold the agent 
responsible should the delay be attributable to him. Negligent appli- 
cants can not twice solicit the same grant. 

Should objection to the granting of an application or to the proper 
mrveys be filed by the owner of the land, alleging the nonexistence of 
the deposit, the agent shall dismiss the objection should there be any 
indications of a deposit on the land or any boring or prospecting work 
3n said deposit. 

In case no such indications, borings, or works exist, proceedings 
similar to those hereinbefore mentioned shall be instituted, tbe court 
ileciding whether or not the grant shall be made, his decision being 
appealable in either case. The judgment is to be communicated to the 
Department of Promotion. 

The agents shall suspend proceedings in case an objection is filed, and 
forward the record to the local court of the first instance for the insti- 
tution of the proper judicial inquir3^ The court shall make known its 
decision to the Department of Promotion. 

Working of mineral substances, either conveyable pursuant to this 
law or belonging to the owner of the surface ground, is subject to the 
regulations; but, by observing these, mine owners shall be allowed full 
liberty of action to work as may seem best to them, pushing, delaying, 
or suspending for a greater or less time their work, employing therein 
the number of laborers they may see fit and wherever may best serve 
their purpose. Mine owners, however, shall be liable for accidents 
that may occur in the mines due to poor workmanship, and to indem- 
nify the damages occasioned other property through lack of drainage 
or through any other cause affecting the interests of others. , 

When, in order to push the works of a mine in any locality, drain- 
age tunnels may become necessary, the execution of such works shall 
be the subject of contract between the parties interested. 

Associations or companies formed to operate mines shall be governed 
by the commercial code. 



240 MEXICO. 

The contract for advances {de avio), so called, up to this time, shall 
hereafter be considered either as a partnership — -in which case it shall 
be governed by the commercial code — or a mortgage. A mining 
mortgage may be freely constituted in accordance with the civil code 
of the Federal District, bearing in mind the indivisibility of the claim 
hereinbefore mentioned, and, as regards recording, observing the pro- 
visions of the commercial code, to which end a special book shall be 
kept for mining operations. The mortgagee shalL always have the 
right to pay the Federal tax hereinbefore mentioned, and shall thereby 
acquire a preferred right with respect to the owner of the mine and 
his own mortgage. 

Mortgages may be divided into bonds, assignable or payable to 
bearer, either by the terms of the original mortgage deed or by sub- 
sequent instrument. In every case it shall contain provisions consti- 
tuting a common representative of the bondholders. These provisions, 
as well as those relating to the aggregate of the debt, the conditions 
thereof, and of the securitj^^, shall be printed in the bonds. 

Bondholders may only proceed against the mortgagor or the mort- 
gaged property through the common representative, whose acts with 
respect to said right shall be binding on all. 

Failure to pay the property tax, pursuant to the provisions of and 
procedure under the law establishing the same, shall be, from and 
after the date hereof, the sole cause for forfeiture of mining property, 
which property so forfeited shall be free of all burdens and may be 
granted to the first applicant. 

All matters relative to the establishment and working of smelting 
and reduction works and assay oflSces shall be governed by the general 
laws, and in so far as regards taxation by the law of June 6, 188T. 

Parts of tunnels located outside of claims, when intended solely for 
ventilation, drainage, and extraction of metals not taken from the said 
tunnels, are exempted from taxation. 

Denouncements of mines or surplus ground in the course of adjudi- 
cation when this law goes into effect shall be decided in accordance 
therewith. 

Surplus ground and vacant spaces between adjoining or abutting 
mining properties not denounced when this law goes into effect shall 
belong and be granted to the first applicant. 

The law went into effect on the 1st of July, 1892. 

MINING TAXES. 

On June 6, 1892, the President promulgated, through the Finance 
Department, a mining-tax law, the principal provisions of which are 
as follows: 

Pursuant to the new mining law, a Federal mining-property tax is 



, MINING TAXES. 241 

I established. It is dual in its application — one to be paid but once in 
stamps to be affixed to every title or patent, and the other to be paid 
annually for each claim which a grant covers. Every fraction of a 
claim exceeding the half of a full claim shall pay the same as the 
latter. Smaller fractions are exempt. 

The stamps shall be of the denomination of $10, and are to be 
affixed to the title or patent at the rate of one stamp for every claim 
of 10,000 square meters. Fractions are to be paid for as above. 

Every mine owner or occupant is bound to pay the sum of $10 per 
year for every claim composing his grant. 

This annual tax is to be paid quarterly in advance, payment to be 
made during the first month of the quarter, without notice. 

Any concealment of the number of claims owned shall be punished 
with a fine in double the amount of the stamps the patent or title 
should bear for the claim concealed; and further, a fine in double the 
amount of the annual tax for the whole if it shall not have been paid, 
without prejudice to civil and criminal liability. 

Default in the payment of the annual tax within the first month of 
the quarter will subject the mine owner to a fine equal to 50 per cent 
of the tax, if paid during the second month. Should payment be 
deferred until the third month, the fine shall be equal to the full amount 
of the tax. Upon the expiration of this term without payment of the 
tax and accumulated fines the mine is forfeited without appeal. 

Upon the sale of a mine the grantor shall give notice of the same for 
record, and the deed shall have affixed the stamps required by the law. 

In case any person or company shall find it inadvisable to continue 
the working of a mine or mines, notice must be sent to the proper 
office of the Treasury Department in order to settle the tax up to the 
date of notice and make the necessary entry in the record. 

On July 1, 1897, another mining-tax law went into effect. Its pro- 
visions are as follows: 

Art. 1. Silver and gold are subject, in accordance with the pro- 
visions of this law, to the payment of the following taxes and charges: 

I. Interior stamp tax, at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

II. Coinage charges, at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of the 
same metals. 

III. Assaying charges, in conformity with the tariff' which the 
Department of the Treasury may publish. 

IV. Charges for smelting, refining, and separating in accordance 
with the respective tariffs which may be published by the same 
Department. 

Art. 2. In order to liquidate the stamp tax and coinage charges, the 
basis for estimating the value of the precious metals shall be the value 
which the monetary laws of the country assign to the said metals, i.e., 
509a— 04 16 



242 MEXICO. 

the kilogram of silver being at present $40,915 and the kilogram of 
gold $675,416. 

Art. 3. The cost of the respective operations will be taken into 
account in connection with the tariff which clauses III and IV of 
article 1 establish for the collection of the charges. 

Art. 4. Not merely gold and silver in mixed bars, or consisting of 
one of these metals, but also sulphides of silver, argentiferous copper 
and lead, mineral in a natural state, or concentrated, or which may 
have been to a certain extent treated, and generally any other ore or 
substance which contains silver or gold, are subject to the payment of 
the taxes and charges established by article 1. 

Art. 6. The stamp tax and coinage and assay charges shall be paid 
in all cases, whether it be that the substance is presented for coinage 
or for exportation. The smelting charge shall only be collected on 
the substances which are not homogeneous and therefore require to be 
smelted in order to effect the assay valuation and liquidation of same; 
and the charges for refining and separating shall only apply to the 
substances intended for coinage. 

Foreign money is not liable to the burdens imposed by this law, but 
it shall be subject when introduced to a mint — for purposes of recoin- 
age — to the payment of the coinage charges, and also in proper cases 
to the charges established in sections III and IV of said article. 

Art. 6. The payment of the respective taxes and charges shall be 
made at the mints or in the special assaying offices, whether the metals 
be introduced for coinage or for the purpose of exportation, and in 
each case the requisites established by the regulations must be com- 
plied with. 

The taxpaj^ers who can not prove that they have paid the taxes in 
the establishments mentioned, and who may wish to ship gold or silver, 
or any substance which contains these metals, to a foreign country, 
shall be allowed to make the payment at the custom-houses upon the 
terms and requirements of the said Regulations. 

Art. 7. The payment shall be made in current money of Mexican 
coinage, but as regards the stamp tax the collecting offices shall affix 
to and cancel on the respective documents which they shall deliver to 
the taxpayers the corresponding stamp for the amount of said tax. 
These documents shall be made out in the form which the regulations 
shall provide, specifying the value of the metal and the amount of the 
tax and charges. 

Art. 8. When the minerals destined for a foreign country come 
from an}' State in which the}' have been taxed in conformity with the 
law of the 6th June, 1887, the coinage charges and stamp tax may be 
liquidated, taking as a basis — always provided that the Department of 
the Treasury has so authorized — the value which has been given to the 
minerals in the assaying office or in that of the collector of taxes. 



MiisriisrG TAXES, 243 

Art. 9. The metallurgical establishments, which bj^ express stipula- 
tion in force at the date of this law enjoy the privilege, shall continue 
to enjoy the privilege of exemption from "the payment of the coinage 
tax upon the silver which they ma}^ export direct, provided always 
that the proportion of silver in the argentiferous leads does not exceed 
seven one-thousandths and that of the argentiferous copper twenty 
one-thousandths; but if the proportion of silver exceeds these limits, 
the said establishments shall pay the coinage tax upon the excess. 
This exemption applies only to those products which originally pro- 
ceed from the establishments enjoj-^ing the franchise, and not to those 
products purchased from other concerns. 

Art. 10. The coinage and stamp tax on gold, according to the law, 
shall be estimated upon the intrinsic value of the precious metal con- 
tained in the minerals which are exported, with only such exceptions 
as are contained in the following articles. 

Art. 11. The mineral substances which contain less than 250 grams 
of silver or 10 grams of gold per ton are exempted from the payment 
of the tax and charges imposed bv this law, the proportion between the 
one and the other limit to be taken into account in case of a combina- 
tion of both metals. 

Art. 12. The mineral substances of gold or of silver which ma}' be 
exported in their natural state, or after mechanical concentration, shall 
be liable to the coinage charge and also the stamp tax upon the gold 
and silver which the}^ contain, 10 per cent being deducted. 

Art. 13. Should the Department of the Treasurj^ see proper it may 
grant special concessions to the concerns which are in the habit of 
exporting ores in large quantities, provided that such concerns satis- 
factorih' prove by means of their books and other documents the weight 
and proportion of metal of the ores which they wish to export, and that 
thej admit, for this purpose, the unconditional investigation of the 
Treasury agents. This concession may be extended to arranging with 
the exporters for the payment of a fixed sum as remuneration of the 
Government for the cost of the assay and inspection of said mineral 
substances; but in no case shall it allow of an exemption from or rebate 
on the stamp tax and coinage charges established by this law. 

Art. 14. The Regulations shall fix the penalties which violators of 
this law shall incur and the mode of making the same effective, placing 
clandestine exportation on a level with contraband, and punishing it 
with the penalties which for this offense are imposed b}^ the general 
custom-house ordinances and other relative laws. 

Art. 15. The producers of silver which contains gold are at liberty 
to separate the same in their own private establishments; and in case 
that they introduce silver mixed (with other metal) to any Federal 
Government office, thej^ shall have the right to separate the gold to the 
extent that they may desire, paying the respective tax or charge per 



i?44 xzxTco. 

kilogram, in aoeordsinee with the taritf . If the producei^s do not fix the 
extent* the separation shall be made on their account, when the pro- 
portion of ofold is equal to or greater than two one-thousandths. 

Aet. 16. The rates hxed in the general stamp law for the * * accounts" 
issued by the mints and for the "metals of gold and silver" are 
repealed: the laws and provisions at present existing with reference 
to the Federal taxes and charges on gold and silver are also repealed. 

The States can continue collecting the local taxes authorized by the 
law of the 6th June. 1SS7. which shall be liable to the Federal contri- 
bution mentioned in the stamp law. 

The total product of mining taxes and other dues for the liscal year 
li^jl-2, amounted to >y>.Si7,-375.::}6. as shown in the following tigures 
from Mexican official sources: 

Metals for eoiBing: 

MidT (^siamp. minT, and otiier dues ' fl, 03-5. 469. 68 

Federal assay omces • stamp, mint, and other dues) 439. 726. 76 

1.475.196.44 
Meial; for export: 

MintehaT^^ 268,113.61 

FedemI assay charges 1, 270, 151. 97 

Oastomdnes S33,913.24 

2. 372, 178. S2 



CHAPTER X. 

INDTJSTItrES AND MAHTTFACTXTRES. 

Mexico is not a manufacturing country. Such aiticles as ttie mass 
of the people require are. however, generally produced in sufficient 
quantities to meet the demand. She is, since the great depreciation 
of silver, beginning to learn that it is cheaper to make than to buy. 
and within the past three or four years very large amounts of capital 
have been invested in manufactories and industries. Mexico will 
hardly become, for very many years at least, a manufacturer of articles 
beyond those of which she produces the raw materials: but this would 
furnish a field for the invesnnent of almost limitless capital, for hardly 
any nation on earth furnishes raw materials in so great abundance. 
Manufactures will spring up with the increased production of raw 
materials, but the country's agricultural resources are so great it is 
destined to become, still more than at present, a great exporter of raw 
material. The natural products of the soil are so varied, so certain, 
and so sure of good markets, that capital is diverted to agricultural 
and mineral development rather than into manufacturing enterpises 
on a large scale. 

The Indian, who forms the largest portion of the laboring popula- 
tion, is not progressive. He is loth to lay aside the rude implements 
of his forefathers and take up methods of modern invention and 
advancement. His needs are few, and he is not inspired with a desire 
to improve his condition. Having inherited nothing but tradition and 
the meager physical means to provide for his sustenance, he zealously 
guards the one and utilizes the other to the same extent as his forebears, 
leaving his children only what he himself received. The three centu- 
ries of Spanish domination have left their imprint upon his character, 
and everything he does is executed in a perfunctory manner. He 
goes to his daily toil early and returns to his frugal meal and rest late. 
Ambition within him is dead. He is satisfied with his lot and cares little 
what the morrow may bring forth. But the Indian is losing ground. 
The white races are surpassing him. and with increasing transporta- 
tion facilities, a progressive government fostering industrial interests, 
the disappearance of internecine strife, the influx of foreign capital 
and enterprising men, his successors will, in the not very distant 
future, either join the ranks of the progressive people, as in the thickly 

245 



246 MEXICO. 

populated portions of the Republic they have already begun to do, or 
die off, to be replaced by a more energetic and ambitious class. 

Time was when Mexico was regarded b}?^ natives and foreigners as 
a land of mineral wealth only, and her many other natural resources 
were but little noticed or developed. The building of great railway 
systems, affording better means of communication, has, however, 
brought to the notice of the world at large the great possibilities for 
wealth earning which the country affords. 

Brantz Mayer, ^' writing of Mexico and a portion of the territory of 
that country which but a few j^ears before had been annexed to the 
United States, said: 

'' California has at least illustrated one great moral truth which 
the avaricious world required to be taught. When men were starv- 
ing, though weighed down with gold — when all the necessaries of life 
rose to twice, thrice, tenfold, and even fifty or a hundred times their 
value in the Atlantic States — that distant province demonstrated the 
intrinsic worthlessness of the coveted ore and the permanent value of 
everj^thing produced by genuine industry and labor." 

Spurred on to a recognition of this truth by exchange, which has 
acted as a protective tariff, the country, which knew practically noth- 
ing but mines, began, a few years since, to manufacture, and to-day 
the whistle of the mill and the sound of the hammer are beginning to 
be heard throughout the land. Many articles which five or six years 
ago brought the Government millions in duties are now not imported, 
the people having gone into the manufacture of these articles, which 
thus produce revenue to the Government through other channels at 
the same time that they add to the wealth of the people. 

Cotton mills. — The principal manufacturing industry of the Republic 
is the making of cotton cloth, mostly manta^ a coarse, unbleached cot- 
ton fabric. It has been estimated that the mills of the country con- 
sume annually about 40,000,000 pounds of cotton, quite a large portion 
of which is imported from the United States. The industry gives 
work and support in the field and mills to more than 80,000 families. 
As a rule the mills are provided with old-style machinery, but recently 
a number of them have set up American and English machinery of 
modern type. The ordinary cotton cloth {manta), which is about the 
only material for clothing used by two-thirds of the inhabitants of the 
country, is usuall}^ made up in pieces of 30 yards 4 inches in length by 
34.12 inches in width. The price of the piece varies from $2.88 to |4. 

In the year 189.5-96 there were 100 cotton and print mills in the 
country; in 1897 they had increased to 111, and the development of 
this industry since then is shown in the following table: 

a Mexico, Aztec, Spanish, and Republican, 1852. 



COTTON MANUFAOTUEE. 



247 



Factories. 



Working. Idle. 



1898-99 112 

1899-1900 I 134 

1900-1901 1 134 

1901-2 i 124 



Spindles. 



Old style. Modern 



274, 959 
273, 219 
188, 364 
162, 359 



194, 588 
315, 255 
408, 452 
433, 369 



Looms. 



Old style. Modern 



8,992 
8,427 
6, 987 
5,647 



5,052 
9,642 
11, 746 
12, 575 



Printing 

ma- 
chines, 
modern. 



Year. 



1898-99 . . 
1899-1900 
1900-1901 
1901-2 . . . 



Cotton con- 
sumed. 



Kilos. 
27, 594, 260 
28, 985, 254 
30, 262, 319 
27, 628, 366 



Pieces 
woven or 
printed. 



10, 753, 764 
11, 525, 952 
11,581,523 
10, 428, 532 



Yarn pro- 
duced. 



Kilos. 
1,931,422 
1,884,401 
1, 873, 302 
1,879,329 



Sales declared. 



829, 926, 568. 18 
35, 458, 577. 78 
33, 877, 214. 87 
28, 779, 999. 49 



Industrial taxes paid by the 114 cotton mills in operation in the 
Republic for the half 3^ear from January to June, 1903, amounted 
in the aggregate to $812,399.70. The largest item is $149,543.90, 
assigned to the " Compania Industrial de Orizaba," the principal cotton 
mills in Mexico; then follow the " Compania Industrial de San Anto- 
nio," with $43,455.20; the "Compania Industrial Veracruzana," with 
$68,683.35; the "Compania Industrial Manufacturera," with $35,000; 
the other mills vary from $16,000 downward. 

The assessment for the six months mentioned exceeds that paid in 
the half j^ear from July to December, 1902, by $2,886.60, and the 
number of mills assessed was 124, being 10 more than the number 
above quoted. The number of hands emploj^ed in the cotton factories 
of Mexico in 1902 was 50,632. 

The distribution of this industry, by States, was during the fiscal 
year 1901-2, as follows: 

CENTRAL STATES. 





Factories. 


§ 
o 


d 

QJ ft 


>< 


•6 
£ 

0) 

13 
1 


0) 

a 


1 
o 


a 


©a 


State. 


1 




3 


ago 

2; 


Distrito Federal . . 


10 
8 
6 
1 
7 

26 
4 
1 

10 


3 

2 
4 
3 
2 
5 

"""i 


13 

10 

10 

4 

9 

31 

4 

2 

10 


Kilos. 
1, 975, 992 
1, 214, 619 
1,739,234 

226, 999 
1,499,145 
3, 953, 417 
1,151,385 

189, 798 
2,081,586 


1,565,322 

288,011 

280, 768 

46, 798 

630, 364 

1, 933, 088 

527, 667 

46,938 

892,939 


■ Kilos. 
296, 215 

59,878 
202, 162 

98, 071 
181, 093 
111, 926 
227,596 
9,246 

50, 810 


13,165,417.95 

991,999.85 

1, 200, 219. 63 

217,931.08 

1, 875, 675. 79 

4, 625, 149. 90 

1,229,747.05 

148, 976. 61 

2,064,734.98 


71,484 
30, 680 
44, 980 
9,072 
79, 260 
170,846 
51,820 
10,240 
81,596 


1,714 

1,322 

1,207 

312 

2,646 
6,112 
1,412 
300 
2,633 


20 

'"3 
4 


""8 


3,624 
1 956 


Guanajuato 

Hidalgo 


2,648 
393 


M(5xico 


3 47 S 


Puebla 


(1 fitiO 


Quer6taro 

San LuisPotosl... 
Tlaxcala 


2, 490 

500 

3 255 






Total 


73 


20 


93 


14,032,175 


6, 211, 895 


1,236,997 


15,519,852.84 


555, 978 


17, 658 


41 


24, 904 



NORTHERN STATES. 



Coahuila 

Chihuahua . . 
Nuevo Le6n . 
Sonora 

Total . . 



19 1 



2, 214, 582 
539, 984 
912, 072 
212, 032 



3,878,670 



595, 585 
128, 957 
271,526 
49, 214 



1, 045, 282 



28, 982 

655 

1,375 



31, 012 



, 635, 117. 17 
624, 157. 44 
854, 744. 89 
264, 996. 16 



3, 379, 015. 66 



108, 566 
15, 228 
36, 334 
5,588 



166, 716 



3,551 
590 

1,152 
190 



5,483 



4,236 

873 

1,577 

336 



1 7,022 



248 



MEXICO. 

GULP STATES. 





Factories. 


a 
o 

Sa 

O 

o 


Pieces woven 
or printed. 




OJ 

o 


g 
■ft 


.a 

o 
o 


a . 

.9 " 
'f-t 


oa 


State. 


g 
3 
o 




3 

o 


Number 
hands « 
ployed. 


Veracruz 


10 


2 


12 


Kilos. 
5, 513, 967 


2,036,633 


Kilos. 
260,386 


17, 016, 054. 59 


233, 198 


7,168 


26 


10,0221 





PACiriC STATES. 



Colima 

Chiapas 

Guerrero 

Jalisco 

Michoacdn 

Oaxaca 

Sinaloa 

Tepic (Territory). 

Total 



22 



30 



62,463 
102, 744 
191,269 
1,451,045 
772, 365 
690, 145 
265, 809 
667, 714 



4, 203, 554 



3,574 
34, 900 
56, 946 
395, 576 
175, 240 
225, 427 
71,486 
172, 573 



23, 902 



140, 774 

154, 408 

25, 433 

6,385 

32 



350, 934 



S39, 
126, 
98, 
614, 
491, 
590, 
326, 
577, 



764. 01 
261. 68 
913. 49 
261. 30 
359. 88 
4'77. 02 
107. 32 
931. 70 



2, 865, 076. 40 



2,684 
3,600 
5, 196 
87, 836 
25, 808 
35, 736 
11, 504 
24, 352 



196, 716 



132 
202 

2,258 
692 

1,110 
478 
718 



151 

260 

324 

3,114 

1,458 

1,410 

787 

1,180 



2 8,684 



Besides the cotton cloth and prints, a considerable amount of cotton 
yarn is used in the manufacture of rehozos (an article serving as a 
shawl and scarf for women), blankets, and coarse napkins. The best 
rehozos are made in the town of Tenancing-o. The articles named are 
also manufactured of silk and linen. There are in the Cit}^ of Mexico 
several factories devoted to the manufacture, by hand, of zarapes.^ 
-rebozos^ manias^ and other cotton stuffs. 

The manufacture of knit goods, such as hosiery, underwear, etc., 
has increased considerably, and has resulted in making a very notice- 
able reduction in the amount of imported goods of this character. 
The cloth made is of a fair quality, and sells at from $1.62 to $2.62 
per vara;* carpets being from $1 to $1.30 per vara. 

As demonstrative of the profits to be made in the manufacture of 
cotton textiles, it has been stated upon good authority that one of the 
large corporations in Orizaba paid its shareholders in the year 1896 
16 per cent. In the Federal District another company divided, during 
the same year, among its shareholders a profit of 15 per cent. The 
thread factories and cotton goods manufactories owned by individuals 
are said to make annually between 30 and 40 per cent on their capital. 
Woolen mills. — Mexican industry also pi'oduces woolen blankets and 
blankets of a mixture of wool and cotton, cassimeres, which, although 
they have not the body and fineness of texture of those of European 
manufacture, have, on the other hand, great resistance, and are cheap. 
The zarapes constitute, perhaps, the most profitable industry. These 
multicolored woolen cloaks or blankets are well made, those of Saltillo 
and San Miguel being celebrated for their fine texture, brilliant colors, 
good finish, and excellent wearing qualities. They have achieved con- 



«A vara is 34.12 inches. 



PAPER MANUFACTURE. 249 

siderable fame abroad, and some grades have been sold for more than 
1100 each. 

The principal woolen mills are in Aguascalientes, Durango, Guana- 
juato, Hidalgo, and Puebla. San Luis Potosi, Zacatecas, Mexico, and 
Nuevo Leon also have woolen mills which produce a fair quality of 
goods. 

It is not generally known that wool spinning has been going on in 
Mexico for more than three centuries, yet such is the well-authenticated 
fact. In the year 1541 the first viceroy introduced Merino sheep into 
the country and established manufactories of woolen cloth. 

Silk industry. — Silk weaving can hardly be said to be a great indus- 
try at present, but it is increasing rapidly. Silk was cultivated and 
sold in the markets of Mexico as far back as the time of Charles V, 
Cortes speaking of the fact in his letters to that monarch, and there 
are still preserved pictures done by the ancient Mexicans upon a paper 
made of silk. The culture of the silkworm and weaving of its product 
were prohibited by the Spanish Crown in its American possessions 
during the vice-regal administrations as stated elsewhere. The indus- 
try gradually died out, and it is only of late years that it has been 
revived. 

The climate of Mexico is unexcelled by anj^ in the world for the rais- 
ing and developing of cocoons. The silkworms at the present time are 
mostly raised in Oaxaca, in the State of the same name; Tetela, in the 
State of Puebla; Ixmiquiltam in Hidalgo, and in the States of Jalisco, 
Oaxaca, Tlaxcala, Michoacan, Queretaro, Veracruz, Chihuahua, and 
Zacatecas. The white and black mulberry leaves grow well in these 
States and in the Federal District. In 1886 there were four silk fac- 
tories, which could be considered to be fairly well equipped. They 
had plants of machinery imported from France, and, although small, 
were in the hands of enterprising men, and it was -thought at the time 
that these factories and others, which it was said would be established, 
would manufacture more silk than could be consumed by the people 
of Mexico. Statistics do not show that the outcome of this undertak- 
ing has been as successful as was expected. Although several of the 
State governments in the year 1886, prior to that time, and since then, 
ofiered inducements to those persons who should devote themselves 
to the growing of mulberr}^ trees and the establishment of silk facto- 
ries, success does not seem to have attended any of the efforts in this 
line. There is now one silk factory in the City of Mexico, which is 
pronounced to be producing a very fair grade of goods. 

There is a colony devoted to the raising of silkworms. 

Paper mills. — Considering the great quantity and variety of fibrous 
plants and other material for paper making with which Mexico is 
endowed, and that this industry has been protected for many years by 
the tariff, it seems strange that throughout the entire territory there 



250 MEXICO. 

are only a few paper mills, which manufacture comparatively little 
writino- paper, but a considerable quantity of wrapping aiid printing- 
paper, envelopes, etc. The oldest mill is that at Cocolapan, in 
Orizaba, which produces a straw and printing paper of a low grade. 

Under date of June 3, 1899, the legislature of the State of Mexico 
granted the joint stock company known as "El Progreso Industrial," 
engaged in the manufacture of paper from the "maguey" fiber, exemp- 
tion from all State taxes and contributions for the term of ten j^ears. 
The company's mills are situated in the districts of Tlalnepantla and 
Cuautitlan, About 1,600 men were engaged in erecting the buildings. 
The engines will be moved by hydraulic power of 1,500 horsepower. 
The mills will be able to produce in large quantities all kinds of paper, 
especially those of superior quality. 

Sugar mills. — Save in the State of Morelos and some districts in the 
States of Puebla, Veracruz, Michoacan, and Jalisco, and the Territory 
of Lower California, the sugar industry is very backward. In most 
of the sugar mills the juice of the cane is extracted by wooden cylin- 
ders, and boiled down to the necessary consistency to form small tab- 
lets or cakes (called pmielas or piloncillos) of a dark brown saccharine 
substance called 2)<:('nocha. Except in rare cases, the use of steam and 
modern machinery is unknown. That this is a profitable industry is 
shown by the fact that the sugar mills of Tenango, Santa Clara, and 
San Ignacio, in the State of Morelos, paid back to their owners the 
total of their investment within four years. 

Spirits. — Distilleries are to be found all over the country, yet very 
few of them have modern plants. These distilleries are chiefly engaged 
in distilling the liquor mescal., which has been described in another 
part of this book. Another liquor made in Mexico is distilled from 
the sugar cane and is called aguardiente (burning water). It is one of 
the strongest liquors known. 

A very fair native wine and brandy are made of the grapes, but this 
industry is not a prominent one and does not supply the home demand. 

Beer and pale ale of an excellent quality are produced. 

Official figures for 1901-2 show that there were then in the country 
1,969 establishments devoted to the manufacture of spirits, from sugar 
cane, maguey, grapes, grains, etc., which produced during that year 
33,288,853 liters of spirits, the principal production being from the 
sugar cane, 20,474,474: liters; from the maguey, 9,133,755 liters, and 
2,930,554 liters of grain spirits, besides 135,249 liters of various spirits. 
The number of stills in use amounted to 2,439, with a capacity of 
1,335,589 liters. 

Tobacco. — The tobacco-utilizing industry is extensive, nearly every 
town and hamlet having its cigarette factory. The largest manufac- 
tories of cigars and cigarettes are in the Federal District, Puebla, and 
Veracruz. Cigarettes are very cheap, 700 to 800 selling for a dollar. 



IROlSr AND STEEL. 251 

Good brands of cigars may be purchased at from $35 to $80 per thou- 
sand, Mexican currency. This industry is a profitable one, as it has 
been stated that a cigarette manufacturing company started operations 
the 1st of eJanuary, 1894, with a nominal capital of $1,000,000, intro- 
ducing the most perfect methods for the manufacture of that product. 
The first year the company paid dividends of 11 per cent, in the second 
15 per cent, and 17 per cent in the year 1896. This result is the more 
notable, inasmuch as the company at the time of its formation into a 
corporation had placed its capital at double the value of that which the 
business really represented. 

During the fiscal year 1901-2 the number of tobacco factories in the 
country was TOl, consuming 7,019,220 kilograms of the raw product 
in the manufacture of cigars, cigarettes, snufi', and cut tobacco. No 
chewing tobacco is manufactured, according to statistics. 

Flour mills. — Although there are many fiour mills in the country 
they do not by any means supply the local demand. Nearly all these 
are supplied with millstones from France, and the machinery in the 
majority of them is not up to the standard. There are over 50 good 
merchant mills in Mexico, ranging in flour-making capacity from 40 
to 260 barrels a day. At least 150 smaller and crude establishments 
are scattered throughout the Republic. None of these mills, however, 
can be said to be properly equipped, all being in need of wheat wash- 
ing and scouring plants. 

Iron and steel. — Iron foundries are numerous, the excellent quality 
of the Mexican minerals and their abundance making it possible for 
them to turn out good work. In most of these foundries the work is 
limited to the manufacture of smaller agricultural implements and 
ordinary marketable iron, although some large pieces have been man- 
ufactured in the wa}^ of sugar-making machinery and other heavy 
work. There is little doubt that at no very distant day this industry 
will be exploited to a much larger extent than it is at present. 

The Government maintains a large arsenal and gun foundry in the 
City of Mexico, where arms and munitions of war have been produced 
which speak highly for the skill and dexterity of the operatives in the 
establishment. There is also a large type foundr}^ located in the same 
city, which turns out excellent work. 

The iron made is almost exclusively charcoal iron of very high grade, 
as many of the deposits run from 50 to 70 per cent iron and contain a 
very low percentage of phosphorus and silica. The limit to the supply 
is set not by the stores of ore, which are practically limitless, but by 
the supply of wood for charcoal. 

Probably the chief disadvantage with which the iron industry in 
Mexico has to contend at the present time is the lack of transportation 
facilities to the shipping point from those mines which are well supplied 
with timber and charcoal. There are plenty of iron mines in the 



252 MEXICO. 

Republic which are favorably located in heavil}'^ wooded regions, but 
the expense of packing machinery on muleback to the furnaces and 
then transporting the product by the same method to the nearest rail- 
road point counteracts the benefits of favoring legislation. 

The cost of producing pig iron is set down as averaging, roughly, 
^9 gold and bars $20 gold to the ton. Prices for this product may be 
said to be about $30 gold per ton, |70 for bars, and $100 for castings. 

It is well known that the Aztecs used iron implements before the 
coming of the Spaniard, and in the sixteenth century the famous Cerro 
del Mercado — a mountain 4,800 feet long, 1,100 feet wide, and 640 feet 
high, containing more than 300,000,000 tons of ore, of which 70 per 
cent is iron — was discovered. 

An authority'^' states that the iron plants in operation are of limited 
capacity, being principally foundries, which turn out castings for 
mines, smelters, and haciendas, and machine shops, whose equipment 
for the most part is neither modern nor extensive. The largest and 
most important of the iron and steel plants in the north part of Mexico 
now in operation, says the same authority, is that of the "Mexican 
National Iron and Steel Company," in the State of Durango, which 
was built some ten years ago, and is within a stone's throw of the 
Cerro del Mercado, estimated to be the largest continuous deposit of 
hematite ore upon the American continent and one of the most exten- 
sive known in the world. There is also in Durango a small foundry 
and machine shop, situated about 6 miles from the city, and run by 
water power. There is also a foundry in the city of Guadalajara, 
in the State of Jalisco. The same authority continues: 

"These and sundry other plants scattered about the country all 
occupy places of minor importance in comparison with the modern 
steel works of large capacity which are now nearing completion in 
Monterey, in the State of Nuevo Leon. This may be regarded as the 
first works of primar}^ importance established in Mexico. The com- 
pany which initiated this enterprise and has carried on the construc- 
tion to the present nearl}'' complete stage was organized, in 1900, under 
the title of "La Compania Fundidora de Hierro y Acero de Monterey," 
with a capital of $10,000,000 Mexican silver. This capital is nearly 
all paid up and the principal stockholders are United States and Mexi- 
can capitalists. The blast-furnace house is 200 by 50 feet; blast-fur- 
nace casting house, 180 by 50 feet; blast-furnace blowing-engine house, 
130 by 50 feet; blast-furnace boiler house, 135 by 50 feet; open-hearth 
bujlding, 204 by 100 feet; mill building, 1,284 by 100 feet; mill-boiler 
building, 200 by 50 feet; rail-finishing building, 196 by 50 feet; foundrj^, 
225 by 120 feet; power plant, 156 by 56 feet; forge building, 100 by 
50 feet; storehouse building, 60 hj 60 feet; oil house, 60 by 30 feet; 

« John James Davis, in the "Iron Trade Review." March 19, 1903. 



,, POTTERY WORKS. 253 

laboratory, 36 by 45 feet. All the latest labor-saving and patented 
I devices applicable to iron and steel manufacture are embraced in the 
} equipment of the various departments. The yearly capacity is given 
I as 128,000 tons, as follows: Rails, 40,000 tons; beams and shapes, 
' 40,000 tons; billets and bars, 10,000 tons; pig iron, 30,000 tons; cast- 
ings, 8,000 tons. The blast furnace and some of the shops are alread}^ 
j in operation. Workmen said to be experienced in this line of labor 
! have been imported from nearl}^ all the countries of Europe." 

Of works projected only one of an ambitious character is reported. 

This is also a steel plant, whose proposed point of location is the town 

of Tepeyahualco, in the State of Puebla. According to the terms of 

i a concession recently granted the plant is to be a complete one for the 

manufacture of rails, beams, columns, etc. 

Ilmmnock manufacture.- — Figuring among the prominent industries 
of the Republic is hammock making. This is principally carried on 
in the State of Yucatan, where hammocks have been articles of use 
and barter from time immemorial, which fact has been demonstrated 
by the discovery in buried cities of hammock beams and hooks. 
Yucatan exports more hammocks than any other province in the 
world. These articles are made from the fiber of the henequen^ and 
are woven entirely by hand with the aid of a ver}^ few primitive 
instruments. All that is necessary to make a hammock is a couple of 
straight poles and shuttles, a thin slat of zapoli wood, and a pile of 
henequen leaves. With these articles at hand a Yucatan native is pre- 
pared to accept contracts for hammocks by the piece, dozen, or hun- 
dred. The great hammock-making district, whence comes the best 
make and which produces more than all the other districts combined, 
is Texcoco. Almost the entire exportation of these articles is con- 
sumed by the New York market. The Indian women are those princi- 
pally engaged in the industry, 

Pottei'y worhs.. — Pottery is classed as a third-rate manufacture of the 
country. It is carried on everywhere. The cities of Guadalajara, 
Zacatecas, Guanajuato, and Puebla maj^ be said to be the centers of 
the industry. The pottery and crockery of the various localities or 
districts where manufactured has its peculiar distinctive features 
of quality, design, and color. 

The Guadalajara ware is gray, as a rule soft baked, polished, and 
often very elaborately decorated in colors, gold, and silver. The 
Zacatecas ware is red, hard baked, glazed, and decorated rudely with 
splashes of underglaze color. The Guanajuato article is in dark 
brown or dark green, with ornamentation of figures, and with a soft, 
rich glaze. In Puebla a coarse porcelain with a thick tin glaze is 
manufactured. Very fine glazed tiles, multiformed and vari-colored, 
are made in this city, specimens of these ornamenting the exterior 
and interior of the churches, which abound in the city named and 



254 MEXICO. 

other cities and towns of this historic State. In some parts of the 
Republic a curious iridescent ware is made which has a copper glaze. 

The crockery for table use is generally heavj^ and in white and blue. 
In many places the Indians are adepts in the manufacture of earthen- 
ware, and the Mexicans generall}'^ are skillful in the making- of wax, 
cla}^, and rag figures, which is one of their profitable industries. In 
Guadalajara, the capital of Jalisco, and Tepic, in the Territory of 
that name, vast numbers of clay images, well molded and painted, are 
made. Foreigners are amazed at the perfect accuracy displayed by 
the humble artists in reproducing costumes and portraits from life or 
photographs. The rapidity with which the modelers perform their 
task is wonderful. Some of the clay and wax work manufactured by 
the deft fingers of the natives has been deemed worthy to rank with 
works of sculpture. The specimens of Mexican handiwork in wax 
which adorn the numerous churches do the artists great honor. No 
city in the Republic of any pretension is without the vender of rag, 
baked clay, and wax images, crjdng his wares. 

Pearl fishing . — Ever since Cortes placed his foot upon the soil of 
the New World pearl fishing has been carried on in the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia, which, in the early days, bore his name. The industry was 
pursued for many years in a desultory waj^, the onl}^ persons engaged 
in it being a few Indians, who dived for the shells without having 
apparatus or modern appliances for diving. The Government has 
granted an English company a concession which is practically a 
monopoly of the pearl fishing in the Gulf of California. This com- 
pany has provided its divers with all the modern appliances, thus 
enabling them to reach greater depths than were possible under the 
old system. 

In 1896 the value of the pearls collected in Lower California was only 
$300. Besides this, however, there were exported 5,000 tons of pearl 
shell valued at $1,250,000. The headquarters of the natives engaged 
in this industry is La Paz, one of the capitals of the Territory named. 
The business is, of course, one depending considerably upon chance, 
but the natives are very fond of it. The large majority of the shells 
contain no pearl and are what is known as seed pearls. The largest 
pearl ever found in the waters of the gulf was about three-fourths of 
an inch in diameter and was sold in Paris to the Emperor of Austria 
for the sum of $10,000. A number of black pearls have been found 
in these waters, and they bring very high prices. In 1902 fine pearls 
were exported to the value of $45,000. 

Other products. — Sponges, mother-of-pearl, abalone, and other shells 
are also found and constitute, together with tortoise fishing, a consid- 
erable industry. The Government has been anxious for some years 
to develop these marine branches of industry and production, and will 
make liberal concessions to companies desirous of engaging in them. 



OTHER INDUSTRIES. 255 

In comparison to the returns, the capital necessary to exploit them is 
small. 

The exportations of pearl shell for the year 1901-2 were 227,228 
kilograms, valued at |6T.,Y00; other shells, $10,000. 

Cottonseed tyiUIs. — There are a number of cotton-seed oil mills in 
the Republic, the largest being located at Lerdo, Durango. Consider- 
able American capital is invested in the enterprise. The mill was 
established in 1887, and has a capital of $1,000,000. Its capacity is 
100 tons a day. The meal is shipped all over Mexico and to Rotter- 
dam and Hamburg. The oil is used in the manufacture of soap, which 
is another considerable industry. This company has since 1892 sold 
between 10,000,000 and 11,000,000 pounds of soap a year. 

Hides and skins. — Another noteworthy industry is the collecting 
and exporting of hides and skins. Mexico occupies the fourth rank 
among the nations of the earth in this particular branch. 

In the year 1901-2 that country exported hides, skins, and leather 
to the value of $6,286,577 Mexican silver, as follows: 



Hides 

Sheepskins 

Goatskins 

Deerskins 

Boar skins 

Alligator skins . 
Other skins 



Kilos. 



5, 831, 110 


$2, 603, 367 


763 


268 


2, 657, 703 


3,283,983 


321,517 


291, 189 


16, 444 


8,627 


225,948 


95, 627 


7,388 


3,516 



Values. 



The kid exported through the Matamoros custom-house is much 
esteemed for the manufacture of strong shoes, its dimensions and 
weight ranking high. This kid brings from 45 to 50 cents per pound. 
The Veracruz goatskins are more sought after and bring 2 cents more 
a pound, while those from Oaxaca are lighter and bring about 39 cents 
per pound. These kids are considered among the best in the world 
for women's and children's shoes. 

Tanneries— Tsinneries are to be found at many places, and a very 
fair leather is turned out. Mexicans are artists in leather work, and 
in the making of saddles they excel. Saddles manufactured in the 
countrj^ have sold for more than $800, being profusely ornamented 
with silver and finely stamped leather. The center of the leather- 
working industry is the city of Leon. 

Glassware. — Glassware is manufactured to some extent, but not to 
that warranted by the abundance of the raw material suitable to glass 
making. The industry is almost limited to the making of window 
panes and ordinary bottles and goblets, at prices so high that the poor 
are almost denied their use. 

Other industries. — There are but few manufactories of jewelry and 
trinkets in the country, notwithstanding the Mexican love of display 



256 MEXICO. 

in this line. The importations of jeweliy and trinkets is made from 
France, England, and the United States. The silver and gold smiths 
of the countr}^ excel in the execution of filigree work, it being sought 
after in all parts of the civilized world. 

The manufacture of acids and chemical compounds, which would 
undoubtedl}:^ be a profitable industry, has about thirteen establishments 
devoted to it, and of these not more than five manufacture acids — so 
necessary to the mining industry. Sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric 
acids are manufactured at great profits. 

Another quite prominent industry is the manufacture of chocolate^ 
several large factories being devoted to the converting of the cocoa 
bean into this article. The Mexican chocolate when ground with cin- 
namon is highly valued. 

Hardxoare is also manufactured, there being in the City of Mexico 
and other large centers a number of foundries where are manufactured 
a considerable amount of iron and galvanized-iron balconies, girders, 
columns, and other building material. 

Felt hats are made in all the large cities, and straw hats everywhere. 

The manufacture of vjooden and wax matches is extensively carried 
on in the country, there being several match factories in the City of 
Mexico and a large number in Puebla. 

A large business is done, although nowhere upon an extensive scale, 
in the manufacture of dulces (sweetmeats) and confections. This busi- 
ness presents a good opening for enterprise. Imported American 
candies sell in Mexico City for 11.65 per pound, silver. 

Gunpowder is also manufactured to quite an extent. In 1897 the 
Department of Promotion entered into a contract with a capitalist to 
establish one or two fulminate factories to manufacture the article for 
mines and smokeless powder for sporting and military purposes. 

Among the distinctively Mexican industries are the beautiful drawn 
wo7'h"' diXidi feather worh^ in the making of which, as well as in the 
pinning of horsehair riatas^ or lassos, which every Mexican charro 
carries on the pommel of his saddle, the natives of the countr}^ are 
unexcelled. Even the peon's wife has a piece of drawn work with 
which to cover her husband's dinner basket. Mexican lace is also far 
famed. 

Despite the fact that Mexico is a large producer of cabinet woods, 
the manufacture of furniture is but little developed. The rich and 
well-to-do classes import nearl}^ if not all of their furniture, upon 
which heavy duties are levied, and the poorer classes need but little, 
and that of the most humble description. 

«In Silao, Guanajuato, a resident owns a beautiful tablecloth of drawn work and 
embroidery. It is pure linen, 13 feet long by 6^ wide. It took 30 Mexican women 
three years to complete it, and cost $10,000. It was exhibited at the Paris Expo- 
sition in 1900. 



AMEEICAN CAPITAL, 257 

There are man}^ brick, artificial stone, tile, lime, soap, varnish, 
paint, starch, musical instrument, harness, blank-book, and other 
manufactories. 

New industries. — Since the first edition of the Handbook of Mexico 
was issued the country has made great strides in the industrial and manu- 
facturing field. A progressive Government has done all in its power 
to foster home manufacture, and has ofl'ered great inducements to those 
who wish to establish upon Mexican soil enterprises which will utilize 
within its borders those articles which its fecund soil produces. Smelt- 
ing and reduction works, waterworks, electric plants, etc., are spring- 
ing up throughout the country, and the columns of the Government 
Official Gazette are daily filled with applications for patents, waste 
lands, water privileges, railroad franchises, etc. , all of which indicate 
that an era of prosperity has dawned. 

A contract has been entered into for the establishment and operation 
of a stock yard as a permanent exposition and market in the Federal 
District, to be completed and ready for operation within five years. 

The cattle market or stock yard shall cover an extent of ground 
sufficient for the corrals, yards, sheds, stalls, etc., that may be neces- 
sary for 5,000 cattle, 10,000 hogs, 5,000 sheep and goats, and 1,000 
horses, and the buildings for offices, dwellings for employees, and 
rooms that may be used by purchasers and dealers. The concession- 
aire is expressly authorized to construct rail connections from the 
stock yard to the existing railroads and to establish telegraph and 
telephone lines for the service. 

American capital. — Consul-General Barlow, in his report before men- 
tioned, states that "the amount of United States capital invested in 
Mexico by 1,117 United States companies, firms, and individuals, is, in 
round numbers, $500,000,000 gold. This amount has practically all 
been invested in the past quarter of a century, and about one-half 
of it has been invested within the past five years. 

"The impetus given to Mexico's industries by this enormous aug- 
mentation of the nation's working capital accounts in no small degree 
for the great industrial progress which it has made during the past 
twenty -five years. With Mexico buying 58 per cent of all her imports 
from the United States and selling 80 per cent of all her exports to 
the United States, and with this enormous investment of United States 
capital in Mexico, the commercial bond between the sister Republics 
is one that hardly can be broken, and is constantly growing in strength. 
The How of United States capital into this Republic has apparently 
only begun, as each year Mexico buys more from and sells more to 
the United States." 

The following information is extracted from the same source: 

More United Stafes capital is invested in the railroads of Mexico 
than in any other sijogle line— about TO per cent of the total. The 
509a— 04- — 1.7 



258 MEXICO. 

Mexican Central Railroad represents the largest single United States 
interest in Mexico. The amount of 1158,999,979.45, given as the capi- 
tal employed, represents what has actually been paid out up to the 
present time for the construction and equipment of the road. The 
Mexican National is the next strongest, with a capital invested of 
*107,35(X000. 

Next in importance to the railroads, from the standpoint of United 
States capital invested, is the mining industry. The amount invested 
by United States capitalists in mining in Mexico may be stated, in 
round figures, at 180,000,000. A large amount of this $80,000,000 is 
invested in up-to-date mining machinery, which is competently han- 
dled, and Mexico's minei'al wealth has been greatly increased by this 
United States investment. 

Agriculture comes after mining in the amount of United States 
capital invested with $28,000,000. Next to railroads, mining, and 
agriculture, the largest United States interest in Mexico is in manu- 
facturing, in which United States capital is only beginning to assume 
importance. A number of important manufacturing enterprises, in 
which United States capital is heavily interested, are just starting or 
have plants in course of construction, as the large iron and steel works 
in Monterey. 

Sinaloa leads the list of Mexican States in regard to the amount of 
United States capital invested in manufacturing enterprises. Most of 
this is engaged in a few large sugar refineries. The Federal District 
comes next, with a variety of large and small manufacturing enter- 
prises. Nuevo Leon, whose capital, Monterey, is one of the principal 
manufacturing centers in the Republic, follows, with $2,500,000 of 
United States capital invested in her enterprises. 

United States capital is also beginning to assume importance in the 
banking of Mexico, and this interest is one that is growing rapidly. 
Next after banks, in the order of the amount of United States capital 
invested, come assay offices and chemical laboratories, ore buyers, ore 
testers, smelters, and refiners, all closely allied to the mining interest. 
All of Mexico's large smelters are operated by United States capital- 
United States firms have of late been building many electric light 
and power plants, gas plants, waterworks plants, telephone systems,, 
and similar plants. The Mexican Telephone Company, operating the; 
telephone system of Mexico City, and the Mexican Telegraph C'om- 
pany, with a line to Veracruz from Mexico City and a cable from 
Veracruz to Galveston, are the largest enterprises of this sort. In 
addition to building plants for their ojvn operation. United States 
firms are building most of the telegraph and telephone lines and laying 
most of the cables for native and other foreign companies. Many of 
Mexico's cities have recently undertaken or are now planning exten- 
sive municipal improvements, and in all of these the United States 
contractor is a conspicuous figure. 



ENCOUEAGEMENT TO INDUSTRY. 259 

A recapitulation b}^ States shows tlie Federal District, which prac- 
tically means the City of Mexico, to be credited with 1320,800,000 of 
United States capital invested. Of this amount $281,800,000 is cred- 
ited to the railways having their main offices in this city. The State 
showing the largest amount of United States capital invested is Coa- 
huila, with $48,700,000; but of this amount $37,800,000 is credited to 
the Mexican International Kailroad, which is not confined to the limits 
of that State. The next State in the order of United States capital 
invested is Sonora, with $37,500,000, of which $27,800,000 is claimed 
to be interested in mining enterprises. Of the total amount of 
131,900,000 credited to Chihuahua $21,300,000 is in mining enterprises. 
Oaxaca and Nuevo Leon follow with $13,600,000 and $11,400,000, 
respectivel3^ 

ENCOURAGEMENT TO NEW INDUSTRIES. 

In December, 1903, the Mexican Congress passed an act authorizing 
the Executive to grant concessions for establishing industrial enter- 
prises new to the country, and without the interv^ention of Congress, 
for five years. This means the extension of act December 14, 1898, 
which is as follows: 

"Article 1. The Executive is authorized for five years, counted 
from the date of the promulgation of the present law, to enter into 
contracts granting franchises and concessions, without prejudice to 
third parties, to concerns guaranteeing the investment of capital in 
the implantation and development of industries that a^i'e entirely new 
in the Republic on the following basis: 

"I. The duration of the franchises and concessions shall be from 
five to ten years, according to the importance of the industry and the 
capital invested therein. 

"IL The minimum capital to be invested in the introduction and 
exploitation of the industry shall not be less than $100,000, and it shall 
carry with it the minimum of franchises. 

"III. That same capital shall be exempted from all direct Federal 
taxes for the entire duration of the contract. 

"IV. The concessionaire may import on a single occasion free from 
customs duties the machinery, apparatus, utensils, and building mate- 
rials necessary for the establishment of the industry and the erection 
of the buildings, subject to the revision of the list of importations by 
the Department of Promotion, and also giving a bond for each case of 
importation, said bond to be canceled as soon as the machinery has 
been set up and the use of the apparatus, utensils, or material has been 
proven. 

"V. The concessionaires shall guarantee the performance of their 
contract obligations by means of a deposit in public -debt securities 
which shall be fixed by the Department of Promotion and which shall 
be made when the contract is signed. 



260 MEXICO. 

"Art. 2. The importation privilege granted by tiiis law shall be 
regulated by the Departments of Finance and Promotion.''' 

"Under this act applications have already been filed for concessions 
to erect a plant for the manufacture of ' butterine and lard compound;' 
a factory for the manufacture of ' buttons, knife handles, and other 
articles of mother-of-pearl;' a 'hammer, pick, hoe, and ax handle fac- 
tory ;' and also a ' starch factory. ' '' 

NeiL^ concessions. — Among the new concessions granted by the Mex- 
ican Government to foster the industrial development of the country, 
the following are the most important : 

Manufacture of incandescent lamps within the Republic, with a 
capital of $100,000 and a daily output of 1,000 lamps, to be increased 
in accordance with the demand. 

Exploitation of all the guano deposits on the islands off the west 
coast of Mexico, between Manzanillo and Mazatlan, including the 
islands known as Las Isabelas, Tres Marias, San Juanito, Las Marietas, 
Los Angeles, Isla de Af uera, Isla de Perlas, and the Isla del Medio. 
The object of the concessionaire is to dispose of the guano to the agri- 
culturists of southern California for fertilizing their lands, and par- 
ticularly the orange groves. The deposits are made by aquatic birds, 
such as cormorants and pelicans, millions of which make these islands 
their home during the breeding season, which occurs in April, May, 
and^June of each year. As soon as the breeding' season is over the 
birds desert the islands, migrating north, thereby leaving the nine 
months from July to March in which to collect and ship the guano. 
In April they return, and the deposits are renewed, thus making the 
supply continuous. The guano found on the islands in the Pacific 
Ocean ofi' the west coast of Mexico is considered to be of first quality, 
and contains about 12 per cent ammonia, 10 per cent phosphoric acid, 
and 3 per cent potash. According to the terms of the concession the 
concessionaire must pay to the Government YS cents per ton for all the 
guano shipped from the islands. To guarantee the complete fulfill- 
ment of the obligations imposed on the concessionaire by the provisions 
of the concession, a deposit of $3,000 has been made. 

A concession to exploit an extension of 70,500 hectares, equal to 
174,206 acres, of heavil}^ timbered land in the Territory of Quintana 
Roo, on the eastern part of the Yucatan Peninsula, for a term of ten 
years from December 28, 1903, the date of the promulgation of the 
concession in the ' ' Diario Oficial. "" The concessionaire obliges himself 
not to cut mahogany or cedar trees measuring less than two meters in 
circumference at the base, and agrees to pay $1.50 for each tree over 
that measurement. A regular tariff, with quotas for each class of 
tree, is established. For dye wood logs the quota is $2 per ton; for 
chicle, $18 per ton; for rubber, $24 per ton, both of which are pro- 
duced by trees growing wild in the forest. The concessionaire agrees 



NEW CON"CESSTOKS. 



2fil 



to exploit during- the first two years at least T,000 hectares, equal to 
18,000 acres; during the next two following years at least 34,600 
acres; and during the six following yea.Ys at least 19,770 acres. 

A concession to exploit for ten years a tract of national land meas- 
uring 247,777 hectares, equal to 602,257 acres, situated in the province 
of Balancan, in the State of Tabasco. The land is covered with 
mahogany, cedar, log or dye wood, and many varieties of construction 
timber; it also produces much chicle and resins. The concessionaire 
agrees to pay stipulated prices for the various kinds of trees he may 
cut; the general terms of the concession are as usual. The guarantee 
deposit in the national bank is $3,000 in bonds of the 3 per cent con- 
solidated silver debt. 

A concession for the purpose of breeding the common and the carey 
turtle in Lake Paso de Colombia, island of Cuzumel. The island is 
about 12 miles from the eastern coast of Yucatan, and is about 40 
miles long by about 15 wide. The lease is for ten years, at $100 per 
annum. The guarantee deposit in the national bank is $1,000 in the 
usual bond of the 3 per cent consolidated silver debt. 

The North American Beef Company has been granted a concession 
to build and operate two meat-packing establishments, one in the city 
of Uruapan, State of Michoacan, and the other at a point near the line 
of the Ferrocarril Veracruz al Pacifico. The company is also author- 
ized to establish two plants for the manufacture of pepsin, margarin, 
oleomarganine, refined animal oils, etc., and for the utilization of all 
by-products in the manufacture of felts, brushes, combs, buttons, and 
fertilizers, as well as to build and operate a refrigerating plant and 
cold-storage warehouses in the City of Mexico for the preservation of 
meat and other fresh-food products. 

A concession for the extraction of dye woods and cutting mahogany 
and other timbers, and to gather crude rubber and other resinous sub- 
stances from the forests comprised in 161,224 hectares of public lands 
situated in the District of Peto, State of Yucatan. As a consideration 
for this privilege, the concessionaire binds himself to pay to the Gov- 
ernment the following amounts in Mexican silver: $1.50 for each 
mahogany or cedar tree cut or proposed to be cut; 50 cents for each 
tree cut for construction timbers; $1 for each ton of wood; |2 for 
each ton of dyewoods; $18 for each ton of chicle gum extracted; $24 
for each ton of crude rubber extracted; $1 annually for each hectare 
of land cultivated; 50 cents annually for each head of cattle pastured 
in the zone; 10 cents for each hectare of land exploited. 

The duration of the contract is ten years, and the concessionaire 
agrees to exploit at least 17,000 hectares during the first two years, 
84,000 during the two following years, and 22,000 hectares, of land 
yearly during the remaining six years. 



CHAPTER XI. ' 

COMMERCE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN— STATISTICAL DATA- 
PORTS AND CUSTOMS DISTRICTS— TARIFF. 

The history of the commercial development of Mexico is too long 
to be followed step bj^ step. The natives of the Western Hemisphere, 
even before its discover}^ and conquest, maintained a rudimentary 
commerce, and in Mexico, among the Aztecs, such as were interested 
in international trade were highly honored, and were designated as 
Pohtecas. Instead of coins, copper pieces in T shape, grains or nug- 
gets of gold, cacao nuts, etc., were used. True commerce, which nec- 
essarily entailed the use of metal coins, did not exist until the conquest, 
and it was not until the Spaniards found that gold and silver were 
becoming scarce that thej'^ thought of creating a trade between the new 
possessions and the mother country. As a consequence Spanish ves- 
sels loaded with merchandise began to arrive at the ports of Veracruz 
and Campeche, taking on their return trips immense cargoes of hides, 
indigo, tobacco, dj^ewoods, and other products. This trade increased 
with the foundation of the mint in Mexico, which was the first to be 
established in the New World, but it was hampered to a great extent by 
the difficulties encountered between Spain, and Mexico and the English 
and French pirates who infested the ocean. The port of Acapuico 
Avas open to the products of the Philippine Islands, which were so 
valuable that it was claimed that each vessel freighted at Manila had 
on board merchandise worth 2,000,000 pesos. Trade then sprang up 
with China, Japan, and Peru, so that Mexico, in the sixteenth century, 
was the greatest commercial center of the then known world. During 
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries domestic trade began to be 
developed, and foreign commerce fell ofi", owing to the constant wars 
between Spain and the various European States. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the foreign trade of the 
Republic revived, reaching, it is claimed, the sum of 25,000,000 pesos 
for imports and over 16,000,000 for exports. Until about thirt}^ years 
ago, however, the unsettled condition of the country was a serious 
impediment to this line of development; but peace being then estab- 
lished, railroads were constructed, bringing with them increased 
activit}^ in commerce, industries, and the arts — in short, of every 
branch of public prosperitj^ and wealth. 
262 



FOREIGN TRADE. 



263 



Domestic trade. — The domestic trade of the country is made up of 
the interchange of natural products and the products of native industry 
for such as are not indigenous to the country, or, if so, are produced 
on too small a scale to meet the requirements of native consumption; 
hence the necessit}^ for importing such goods as are required to make 
up the balance of trade. 

Foreign trade. — The principal exports of Mexico are precious metals, 
henequen, coffee, cattle, etc., while the principal imports are machinerj^, 
cotton textiles, iron and steel, wines and liquors, wood and paper and 
manufactures thereof, and textile fibers. 

Don Salvador Echegaray, director of the Bureau of Statistics of 
Mexico, in a paper read before the International Commercial Congress 
in Philadelphia, October, 1899, made in substance the following state- 
ments in regard to Mexican trade development: 

"During the last twenty-five years the Republic of Mexico, under 
President Diaz's government, has enjoyed peace; the construction of 
10,000 miles of railroads, the improvement of some of the ports, the 
general development of the countr3^ and increase of public wealth 
have been made possible. 

"Imports which in the fiscal year of 18T4-75 did not reach 19,000,000 
Mexican dollars, in the last fiscal year (1898-99) amounted to 106,285,307 
dollars silver, an increase of nearly 600 per cent. Exports m 1875 
were 27,318,788 in Mexican dollars, and in the last year 138.478,137 
Mexican dollars, an increase of 500 per cent. 

"The foreign commerce of Mexico in the last seven fiscal years has 
been as follows: 





Importation (declared value in gold). 


Exportation (declared value in silver). 


Year. 


From United 
States. 


From other 
countries. 


Total. 


To United 
States. 


To other 
countries. 


Total. 


1892-93 


$26,235,963 
14,351,785 
15, 130, 367 
20,145,763 
22,593,869 
21,490,604 
24,164,687 


$17, 177, 168 
15,935,704 
18,870,073 
22, 108, 175 
19,610,235 
22,112,888 
26,704,507 


$43,413,131 
30,287,489 
34,000,440 
42,253,938 
42, 204, 095 
48,603,492 
50,869,194 


$63,791,741 
60, 660, 243 
67, 322, 986 
79,651,695 
86, 742, 951 
94, 974, 616 

103, 563, 486 


$23,717,466 
18,683,044 
23,531,967 
25,365,207 
24,603,543 
33,998,133 
34, 924, 651 


$87,509,207 
79,343,287 
90, 8.54, 953 
105,016,902 
111,346,494 
128, 972, 749 
138,478,137 


1893-94 


1894-95 


1895-96 


1896-97 


1897-98 


1898-99 




Total 


144, 113, 029 


142,518,750 


286, 631, 779 


556, 697, 718 


184, 824, Oil 


741,521,729 



"Referring to the general condition of trade, the same authority 
stated that the greater demands for cotton goods m Mexico, due to the 
increase of public welfare and population, produces scarcely any effect 
in the increase of imports of foreign cottons, because the new demand 
has been supplied by the native factories, of which there are a large 
number equipped with ever}'^ modern improvement. Foreign beer has 
practically disappeared from Mexican markets, its place being filled 
by excellent domestic beer. 

"The low price of silver has produced an entirely different effect on 
the silver production in Mexico than it did in the United States. When 



264 



MEXICO, 



the price of this metal reached a certain point in that country several 
mines had to be closed, while in Mexico veins were daily opened, the 
cost of production remaining almost the same, its extraction, labor, and 
transportation being paid as formerly. 

" Mexico's industrial awakening can not be credited solel}^ to the 
depreciation of silver. The construction of railroad lines and the intro- 
duction of foreign capital, attracted b}^ the facilities granted by the 
Government, are factors which have contributed to the flourishing con- 
ditions of the country. The profitable exportation of some products 
increases their prices for home consumption, but staple products, such 
as corn and beans, have suffered no alteration." 

Referring to the commercial methods of Mexico, the same authority 
makes the following statement: 

" The report of the American consul-general for the year 1899 says: 
'As the terms of our American merchants are often very rigid, it is 
hard to reach an agreement, and much trade which by the exercise of 
a little tact and judgment could be handled by American merchants 
goes elsewhere.' Mexican merchants are noted for their integrity. 
The quoted report about commerce and industries in Mexico says: 
•" There are very few concerns here doing business that have hot ample 
capital to carry out all contracts into which thej^ may enter. Failures 
are very rare, indeed, and when they do occur are carefully investi- 
gated by the authorities in the interest of creditors, and any attempts 
to defraud are severely punished. Book entries are regarded as sacred. 
All books kept by business houses are known and small stamp taxes 
paid on them, and thus a sort of surveillance is kept over them by the 
Government authorities.' 

*•' The growing prosperity of foreign commerce gives the measure of 
the progress of the countr}'^, but what confirms even more the opti- 
mistic opinions about the future of Mexico is the figures showing the 
constant increase in the public revenue, due only to a greater return 
from the productive sources and not to new or higher taxes." 

The foreign trade of the Republic since 1898-99, the latest figures 
quoted above has been as follows: 





Importation (declared value in gold). 


Exportation (declared value in silver). 




From United 
States. 


From all 

other Total, 
countries, j 


FromUnited 

States. 


From all 

other 
countries. 


Total. 


1899-1900 


131, 026, 415 
35,189,955 
39,016,679 


S30,291,760 S61..<?1S. 17.T 


$116, 102, 285 
117, 228, 991 
130, 323, 347 


^33,954,075 
31,430,011 
29, 579, 976 


8150, 056, 36C 


1900-1901 


29, 893, 498 
27, 212, 308 


65,083,453 
66, 228, 987 


148, 659, 002 


1901-2 


159, 903, 323 






Total 


105,233,049 


87,397,566 


192, 631, 615 


363,654,633 


94,964,062 


458,618,685 



EXPORTS. 



Exports from Mexico for the month of June, 1903, and for the fiscal 
vear 1902-3 are shown in the followino- fio-ures issued bv the Mexican 



EXPORTS. 



265 



Government; the corresponding- valuations for the preceding fiscal year 
being also given for purposes of comparison: 

EXPORTS. 

[Silver valuation.] 





June— 


Twelvemonths ending June— 




1903. 1902. 


1903. 


1902. 




16,402,512.39 
11, 945, 074. 11 


14,880,980.16 
8. ,564. 81 7. 95 


$91, 763, 481. 31 
105, 965, 487. 46 


168,947,728 17 




90, 955, 595. 49 








Total 


18,347,586.50 


13,445,798.11 


197,728,968.77 


159, 903, 323. 66 







The details of the export trade for the periods under comparison 
show the following classification and figures: 



June- 



Twelve months ending June- 



1903. 



1902. 



Mexican gold coin . . 
Foreign gold coin. . . 

Gold in bars 

Gold in other forms. 

Total gold 



Mexican silver coin. . 
Foreign aih^er coin. . . 

Silver in bars 

Silver in other forms. 



$450. 00 



1, 481. 00 



1, 414, 908. 81 
104, 976. 33 



690, 605. 18 
50, 457. 79 



1106, 630. 00 

9, 329. 00 

13, 264, 275. 67 

828, 553. 60 



S95, 720. 00 

78, 243. 00 

, 698, 822. 57 

442, 470. 94 



1, 520, 335. 14 



748, 543. 97 



14,208,788.27 



9, 315, 256. 51 



132, 375. 00 



3, 616, 480. 06 
1, 133, 322. 19 



52, 000. 00 

39, 357. 00 

3, 537, 167. 60 

503, 911. 69 



21,098,739.00 

85, 540. 67 

46,357,391.36 

10, 013, 022. 01 



11, 351, 765. 00 

259, 573. 98 

41,037,963.17 

6, 983, 169. 51 



Total silver 



4, 882, 177. 25 



4, 132, 436. 19 77, 554, 693. 04 



59,632,471.66 



Copper ' 

Lead 

other mineral products. . . 

Coffee 

Henequ6n in fiber 

Woods 

Dyewoods 

Leaf tobacco 

other vegetable products . 

Cattle 

Raw hides 

other animal products 

^enequtjn, manufactured 
Tobacco, manufactured... 

other manufactures 

Miscellaneous 



2, 790, 
395, 
184, 
651, 
3,284, 
134, 
147, 

55, 

1,251, 

866, 

377, 

89, 
646, 

55, 
965, 

50, 



465. 38 
529. 16 
146. 00 
866. 50 
042. 00 
940. 00 
414. 00 
403. 00 
355. 60 
293. 00 
029. 72 
217. 00 
140.00 
022. 00 
959. 50 
251. 25 



1,294,354.00 

488, 670. 00 

137, 917. 00 

718,871.65 

3, 314, 183. 00 

85,204.22 

140, 626. 08 

127, 957. 00 

871,076.20 

634, 462. 00 

427, 848. 55 

72, 318. 00 

63, 040. 00 

56, 442. 00 

84, 455. 80 

47, 392. 45 



20, 122, 
5, 669, 
1,181, 
9, 021, 
32, 620, 
1, 837, 

964, 

1,383, 

12, 022, 

7, 000, 

7, 466, 

795, 
1,355, 

654, 
3, 123, 

745, 



338. 42 
070. 21 
786. 95 
501. 09 
579. 50 
736. 50 
015. 46 
301. 36 
783.00 
676. 50 
481. 50 
672. 99 
653. 00 
229. 09 

783. 94 

877. 95 



16, 849, 

5, 730, 

546, 

10, 228, 

29, 209, 

1, 708, 

1,288, 

975, 

8, 534, 

5, 033, 

6, 286, 

615, 

1, 485, 

626, 

1, 359, 

474, 



834. 87 

845. 30 
771. 25 

858. 31 
515. 00 

770. 78 
771.84 

878. 32 

683. 79 
958. 36 
577. 92 
418. 04 
184. 00 
462. OS 

442. 31 

623. 32 



Following is a resume of the valuations of Mexican exports during 
the periods under comparison with reference to their countries of 
destination: 





June — 


Twelve months ending June— 




1903. 


1902. 


1903. 


1902. 


Europe 


m, 456, 014. 07 


il, 634, 046. 58 


147,407,134.08 

30, 000. 00 

143, 771, 108. 36 

359, 042. 52 

58,251.81 

6, 103, 432. 00 


123,957,099.32 
500 00 


Asia 


N.orth America 


12,232,757.43 

13,700.00 

3,369.00 

641, 746. 00 


11,104,026.78 

90, 897. 75 

2,794.00 

614, 033.. 00 


130,344,432.29 
851,865.16 


Central America 


South America 


60,484.89 
4,688,942.00 


Westlndies 






Export valuations to the United States in 1902-3 aggregated 
$143,759,758, as compared with $130,323,347 in the preceding fiscal 
year. 



26B 



MEXICO. 



P^xports during- the tirst quarter of the tisctil year 190-3-4, as com- 
pared with figures of the corresponding period in the preceding year, 
were as follows: 

[Declared silver values.] 



1902-3. 



Increase (+) 
or decrea.se 
(-) 1903-4. 



MINERAL PRODUCTS. 



Mexican gold coin . . 
Foreign gold coin . . , 

Gold in bars 

Gold in other forms . 



SIO, 782. 00 

822. 00 

4, 683, 447. 07 

197, 292.] 2 



83.5,021.00 

2, 158. 00 

2,283,912.47 

96, 727. .53 



Total gold exports. 



Mexican silver coin . . 
Foreign silver coin . . . 

Silver in bars 

Silver in other forms . 



Total silver exports 



4, 892, 343. 19 



2, 723, 163. 00 

10, 526. 00 

11,72-5,113.47 

2, 957, 985. 62 



17,417,013.09 



Total gold and silver 22, 309, 366. 28 



Copper 

Lead 

other mineral fjroducts . 



5, 604, 413. 41 
1,370,848.56 
324, 548. 84 



Total mineral products 

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 

Coffee 

Heniqu6n 

Woods 

Dye woods 

Leaf tobacco 

Other vegetable products 



29, 609, 167. 09 



659,257.80 

6, 774, 476. 00 
387,015.00 
249, 439. 00 
102, 908. 00 

3. 907, 6.52. 70 



2,417,819.00 



10, 751. 00 

28, 916. 00 

10, 106, 101. 37 

884,660.62 



16, 746, 077. 99 



19, 163, 896. 99 

4, 658, 881. 95 

1, 314, 702. 00 

150, 683. 87 



25, 288, 164. 81 



896, 312. 50 
6, 586, 991. 00 
448,112.90 
235, 032. 37 
119,245.00 
2, 746, 842. 23 



11, 032, 936. 00 



Total vegetable products ' 12, 080, 748. 50 

ANIMAL PRODUCTS. I 

Cattle 1, 111, 132.00 1, 497, 461. 50 

Eaw hides 1, 372, 796. 87 1, 281, 789. 10 



- 824,239.00 

— 1,336.00 
+ 2,399,-534.60 
-f- 100, -564. .59 



+ 2,474,-524.19 



- 2,064,614.00 

- 18,16-5.00 
+ 1,619,012.10 
+ 2,073,32-5.00 



670, 935. 10 



+ 3,145,459.29 

+ 945,531.46 

+ 56,146.56 

+ 173, 864. 97 



+ 4,321,002.':,s 



- 287, 054. 70 
+ 187, 485. CO 

- 61,497.90 
+ 14, 406. 08 

16, 337. 00 
+ 1,160,810.47 



+ 1,047,812.-50 



153, 059. 00 



1-52,881.00 



2,637,128.87 ! 3,031,931.60 



Other animal products. 

Total animal products 

M>ANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. 

Heniqu6n rope, bagging, etc I 847,205.00 j 377,383.00 

Tobacco, manufactured 99, 193. 24 I 152, 513. 00 

Other manufactured products 1, 182, 007. 50 } 290, 150. 25 

Total manufactured products . 

Miscellaneous 



1,628,405.74 



820, 046. 25 



- 386, 329. 50 

- 8,792.23 
+ 319. 00 



394, 812. 73 



- 30, 178. 00 

- 53, 319. 76 
+ 891,857.25 



808, 359. 49 



144, 290. 06 



316, 360. 13 



172, 070. 07 



SUMM.A.RY OF EXPORTS. 



Precious metals 


$22,509,356.28 
23,790,293.98 


819, 163, 896. 99 
21,325,441.80 


+83, 145, 459. 29 


Other articles 


+ 2,464,852.18 


Total 


46, 099, 650. 26 


40,489,388.79 


+ 5,610,311.47 







The value of the merchandise exported is stated in silver currency, 
as declared by the exporters in the custom-houses, at current commer- 
cial prices; to the value of the gold is added the difference between the 
prices calculated at the conventional rate of $675,416 per kilogram 
and the commercial price as declared by the exporters; the value of 
the silver exported is calculated at the conventional rate of $40,915 
per kilogram. 



HENIQUEN EXPORTS. 



267 



This rectitication makes the general statement of the exports in the 
two periods under comparison as follows: 

Exports, first quarter" — 

1903-4 - $52, 480, 932. 22 

• 1902-3 43, 938, 721. 84 

Increase, 1903-4 8, 542, 210. 38 

equal to an increase of 19. 4^ per cent in the trade of the first three 
months of the current fiscal year 1903-4 as compared with the corre- 
sponding period of 1902-3. 

Agricultural iwodxicts. — The following tables show the returns of 
exportations in the fiscal years of 1890-91 to 1901-2 on heniquen, rub- 
ber, chicle gum, cabinet woods, and dyewoods: 



Fiscal year. 


Heniqu6n, 
unmanufac- 
tured. 


Cordage. 


Rubber. 


Chicle. 


Dyewoods. 


Woods. 


Ordinary. 


Cabinet. 


1890-91 


Kilos. 
53,531,119 
56, 103, 279 
60, 413, 136 
56,507,450 
67, 143, 583 
59,329,309 
71,085,535 
75, 183, 816 


Kilos. 

150,630 

234, 440 

10, 921 

17,911 

13, 435 

12, 729 

6,162 

61,047 

656, 650 

3,386,693 

2, 275, 932 

3,762,530 


Kilos. 

92, 150 

64, 183 

53, 481 

76,830 

85, 986 

82, 943 

64,843 

87, 420 

191,588 

260, 175 

189, 048 

180, 364 


Kilos. 

1,117,224 

1,133,717 

799, 006 

1,202,601 

758,471 

1,448,805 

2,122,337 

891,612 

968,406 

845, 386 

1, 173, 700 

1,804,153 


Kilos. 
32,287,105 
23, 186, 127 
33, 263, 061 
48,110,614 
68,399,335 
108, 896, 408 
72.867,009 
54; 509. 702 
37, 350, 459 
47,493,811 
42,169,692 
40,626,944 


Cm. meters. 

1,008 

4,604 

2,483 

960 

533 

662 

826 

323 

944 

24, 719 

19, 160 

12, 692 


Cu. meters. 
53, 576 


1891-92.. 

1892-93, 

1893-94 


54,077 
39,666 
44, 135 
118, 667 
.56,271 
65, 699 
71, 518 


1894-95 

1895-96 

1896-97 


1897-98 


1898-99 

1899-1900 

1900-1901 

1901-2 

Total 

Average . 


70, 998, 509 
79, 432, 207 
76, 840, 465 
91,944,355 


75,663 
50,629 
69,692 
52, 272 


817, 513, 053 
68, 126, 088 


10,589,080 
882, 423 


1,431,111 

119,259 


14,265,418 
1, 188, 784 


618, 160, 307 
51,513,358 


68,914 
5,742 


751,865 
62, 656 



IleniqiiSn exports. — The figures referring to heniquen, of which 
the production has steadily risen, are the most typical, and at the 
same time the rate of exchange and the gold price of the fiber on the 
New York market have also advanced. 

The following table, embracing the same number of years as the fore- 
going, shows the exportation of unmanufactured heniquen, expressed 
in kilograms, its value in silver and in gold, and, moreover, the mean 
rate of exchansfe: 



Fiscal year. 


Unmanu- 
factured 
heniqu6n. 


Value. 


Mean rate 


Silver. 


Gold. 


change. 


1882-83 


Kilos. 
28, 763, 307 
45, ISO, 421 
45,519,367 
39,474,732 
38, 987, 930 
36,450,676 
38,159,067 
39, 174, 525 
53,531,119 
56, 103, 279 
60, 413, 136 
56, 507, 740 
67, 143, 583 
59, 329, 309 
71,085,535 
75,183,816 
70, 998, 509 
79,432,207 
75, 840, 465 
91,944,355 


m, 073, 960 

3, 923, 673 

3,905,898 

2,844,355 

3, 799, 396 

6,160,164 

6,818,658 

7,356,479 

7,021,306 

6,358,220 

8, 889, 845 

6,712,733 

7, 720, 068 

7,763,821 

7,431,852 

11,564,519 

18,711,325 

26, 099, 388 

16,402,316 

29,209,515 


t2, 748, 120 
3, 460, 689 
3,417,660 
2, 457, 522 
3,100,307 
4, 866, 529 
5,175,361 
5, 435, 537 
5,617,044 
4,514,336 
5,318,382 
3, 389, 930 
3,962,459 
3, 625, 408 
2,750,517 
5, 180, 905 
8, 813, 034 

12, 423, 309 
8,004,330 

12,881,396 


Per cent. 
894 


1883-84 


882 


1884-85 


875 


1885-86 


864 


1886-87 


816 


1887-88 


790 


1S88-89 


759 


1889-90 


739 


1890-91 


080 


1891-92 


071 


1892-93 


63'> 


1893-94 


505 


1894-95 


513 


1895-96 


536 


1896-97 


506 


1897-98 


448 


1898-99 


471 


1899-1900 


476 


1900-1901 


488 


1901-2 


441 






Average 


08,126,088 
















2G8 



MEXICO. 



Exports of henequeu during the calendar year 1903, from Yucatan 
through the ports of Progreso and Campeche, consisted of 611,939 
bales, valued at $36,040,032.32. The distribution of the bales was as 
follows: 

United States 596, 676 

Cuba , - - - - 8, 066 

England 4, 286 

Canada 1, 200 

France, Spain, Germany, Belgium - 1, 711 

Total - - - 611, 939 

The exports of henequen during the last five years were: 

1899 - - 445, 978 

1900 - 499, 626 

1901 - - 517, 519 

1902 - 528, 246 

1903 - 611, 939 

Coffee exj)orts. — The quantity of coffee exported b}^ Mexico in 1902 
was 22,566,013 kilograms, or 49,735,493 pounds. This amount was 
produced by the following States and Territories: 



Kilos. 

Lower California 60 

Coalmila 1,632 

Colima 9,760 

Chiapas 2, 134, 313 

Chihuahua 112, 249 

Oaxaca 676, 165 

Sinaloa 82, 381 



Kilos. 



Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 
Tepic . . 



19, 558 

85, 152 

26, 615 

Veracruz 19,285,608 



Total _ 22, 566, 013 



The value declared in the invoices presented at the custom-houses 
amounted to $10,614,759 Mexican currency. 

The distribution of the coffee exported was as follows: 



Kilos. 



Germany 3, 532, 782 



Austria . 
Belgium 
Canada . 
Cuba ... 
Chile. .. 



56, 070 

12, 261 

32, 480 

51, 893 

4, 130 

Spain 163, 428 



Kilos. 

United States 15, 029, 797 

France 1, 945, 748 

Holland 42, 986 

Great Britain 1, 694, 167 

Italy 264 



Total... 22,566,013 



Ge7ieral export trade. — For the fiscal years 1900-1901 and 1901-2. 
Mexican exports to the rest of the world are estimated by the 
" Anuario Estadistico Fiscal," 1901-2, at the following figures, showing 
an increase of $11,244,322 in favor of the latter year: 



SILVER AND GOLD VALUES. 



269 



Europe 

Asia 

North America... 
Central America . 
South America . . . 
West Indies 



Total . 



1900-1901. 



5,731,057 



117, 229, 711 

504, 091 

47, 626 

5, 146, 515 



148, 659, 000 



123, 957, 009 

500 

130, 344, 432 

851,865 

60, 484 

4, 688, 942 



159, 903, 322 



The principal countries where Mexico sent its products during said 
two fiscal years were the following: 



United States 

Great Britain 

Cuba 

Germany 

Belgium 

Prance 

Guatemalii 

British Honduras 



«117, 228, 991. 15 
12, 033, 076. 81 
5, 146, 515. 00 
5, 018, 464. 02 
4,422,728.41 
2, 824, 303. 13 
366, 388. 60 
109, 055. 00 



130, 323, 347. 29 

10, 572, 484. 29 

4, 688, 942. 00 

4,813,313.54 

5, 485, 793. 50 

2, 215, 306. 60 

473, 288. 64 

88, 160. 00 



Increase + or de- 
crease (-) 1902. 



+13, 094, 356. 14 

- 1,460,592.52 

- 457, 573. 00 

- 205, 150. 48 
+ 1,063,065.09 

608, 996. 53 
106, 900. 04 
20, 895. 00 



+ 



Silver and gold values. — "El Economista Mexicano" of August 8, 
1903, publishes the following very interesting statement showing the 
amount, in Mexican silver dollars, of Mexico's export trade during 
each fiscal year from 1881-82 to 1901-2, the average value of the 
Mexican silver dollar in New York during each year of that period, 
and these annual amounts reduced from silver to gold at the corre- 
sponding yearly average value of the Mexican silver dollar in New 
York: 




It is apparent from these figures that while the silver value of Mex- 
ico's exports in this period of twenty-one years has increased very 



270 



MEXICO. 



notably, the gold value has not increased in corresponding propor- 
tion. These figures show that the increase in Mexico's exports in 
silver value in 1901-2 is $138,834:,500 over the exports in 1881-82; 
the apparent increase in gold value is only $47,995,347, applj^ing the 
average value of the Mexican dollar in each respective year. But if 
the average value of the Mexican dollar in 1881-82, namely, 0.891, is 
applied to the silver value of the exports in 1901-2, the result is a gold 
value of $150,000,000 in round numbers, as compared with 174,000,000 
gold value, which results from the average value of the Mexican dol- 
lar in 1901-2, namely, 0.441, clearlj^ showing a loss for Mexico of 
$76,000,000 in her own silver dollars. 

Lwe Htock. — The Mexican consul at Habana, in an interesting report 
made to his Government concerning the exportation of live stock 
from Mexico to Cuba, recommends that the stock should come from 
the warmer regions of the Mexican Republic and not from the colder 
portions or high table-lands, inasmuch as stock from the latter places 
are hard to fatten and die in considerable numbers before they become 
acclimated. At the present time there is a greater demand in Cuba 
for Mexican cattle than there is for horses and mules. Bulls are 
more sought after in the Cuban markets than steers, and mares find a 
readier sale than either horses or mules. But few Mexican neat cattle 
are imported into Cuba. A large number of lean cattle are bought by 
the stock growers and planters to be fattened on Cuban plantations 
and haciendas. 

IMPORTS. 

For the fiscal year 1902-3 and the twelve months ending in June, 
1903, the imports of Mexico, according to oflicial figures, were valued 
as follows: 

IMPORTS. 
[Gold valuation.] 



Classification. 



Jime- 



1903. 



1902. 



Twelve months ending June— 



1903. 



1902. 



Aiiimal substances 

Vegetable substances 

Mineral substances 

Dry goods 

Chemical and pharmaceutical sub- 
stances 

Beverages 

Paper and its applications 

Machinery and apparatus 

Vehicles 

Arms and explo^^ives 

Miscellaneous 



$402, 354. 92 

1,030,737.92 

2,281,675.43 

779,918.69 

312, 553. 08 
304, 239. 59 
192, 347. 14 
1,037,247.55 
177, 357. 89 
223,230.75 
193, 940. 32 



$426, 646. 70 

973,059.23 

2, 867, 946. 37 

698, 844. 34 

223, 289. 25 
323, 042. 21 
198, 198. 80 
1,007,011.54 
185,917.82 
120,761.83 
186, 726. 92 



$4, 740, 354. 56 

13,525,221.49 

24, 014, 996. 53 

9, 766, 080. 64 

2,791,622.83 
3,133,238.06 
1,925,280.46 
10, 337, 060. 06 
1, 712, 989. 68 
1, 796, 991. 85 
2, 157, 918. 80 



Total. 



6, 935, 603. 28 



7,211,445.01 



75,901,754. 



$4, 878, 582. 48 
11,108,411.51 
21,223,548.29 
8, 409, 332. 81 

2, 668, 496. 88 
2, 852, 587. 99 
1,922,830.79 
8, 398, 185. 96 
1,401,127.34 
1,401,604.52 
1,964,279.40 



66, 228, 987. 97 



The valuation of Mexican imports during the periods under com 
parison with reference to their countries of origin is as follows: 



i 



IMPORTS. 



271 



Country. 



ipurope 13,157,134.85 



\sia. 

ifrica 

Vorth America . . . 
I^entral America . 
50Uth America . . . 

West Indies 

Oceania 



June — 



1903. 



86, 505. 73 
9. 720. 00 
3,651,358.12 
3, 624. 08 
17,412.50 
9, 316. 00 
532.00 



12, 777, 338. 73 

51, 076. 74 

5, 615. 75 

4, 357, 323. 44 

1,427.85 

13, 038. 50 

5, 430. 00 

194. 00 



Twelve months ending June- 



1903. 



$34, 205, 291. 69 

696,718.46 

80, 348. 69 

40, 514, 545. 21 

21,931.04 

195, 444. 19 

129, 554. 93 

57,920.75 



1902. 



, 379, 200. 51 
514, 319. 08 
25, 030. 0& 
, 032, 190. 63 
32, 997. 93' 
156,101.38 
63,851.65 
35,296.73 



Of the total valuation of imports for the fiscal year 1902-3 the United 
States furnished $40,496,671.96, as compared with 139,016,676.08 in 
the preceding year. 

Imports for the first quarter of the fiscal year 1903-4, as compared 
with the corresponding figures for 1902-3, show the following fluctua- 
tions: 

[Invoice gold values.] 



Classification. 



Animal substances 

Vegetable substances 

Mineral substances 

Dry goods — draperies 

Chemical and pharmaceutical substances 

Beverages — .spirituous, fermented, and natural 

Paper and its applications 

Machinery and apparatus 

Vehicles 

Arms and explosives 

Miscellaneous 

Total 



tl, 



318. 88 
945. 96 
005. 85 
315. 32 
786. 38 
389. 66 
508. 49 
701. 00 
534. 09 
685. 62 
343.68 



17, 449, 484. 93 



11,043, 

2, 745, 

6,121, 

2, 475, 

667, 

768, 

487, 

2, 573, 

379, 

368, 

479, 



445. 90 
068. 67 
455. 75 

735. 21 
253. 01 
691. 29 
681. 12 

380. 22 
329. 28 
024. 19 
255. 90 



18,091,320.54 



Increase (+) 
or decrease 
(-), 1903-4. 



+1111,872.98 
+ 31,877.29 

- 592,449.90 

- 135,419.89 
4- 34, 483. 37 
+ 1,698.37 

- 7, 172. 63 

- 333,679.22 
+ 146,204.81 
+ 19, 661. 43 
+ 81,087.78 



641,835.61 



Reducing these gold values to Mexican silver currency, at the cus- 
toms equivalents, the results are: 





Gold value. 


Mexican cur- 
rency. 


1903-4 


$17, 449, 484. 93 
18,091,320.54 


139,998,818.13 
43, 871, 390. 67 


1902-3 




Decrease, 1903-4 


641,835.61 


3,882,572.54 





The decrease in 1903-4 is equal to 8.85 per cent in the imports as 
compared with the same period in 1902-3. 

Imports for the fiscal year 1900-1901 and 1901-2 from all countries 
are officially estimated at the following figures, showing an increase 
of $1,145,534.68 in favor of 1901-2: 



Country. 


1900-1901. j 1901-2. 


Europe 


$28, 956, 971. 89 
545, 410. 29 
26,938.62 
35,201,400.35 
70, 044. 75 
140,212.27 
58, 009. 00 
84,466.12 


$26,379,200.51 

514,319.08 

25,030.06 

39,032,190.63 

32 997 93 


Asia 


Africa 


North America 


Central America 


South America 


156, 101. 38 
53,851.65 
35,296.73 


West Indies 


Other countries 




Total 


65, 083, 453. 29 


66,228,987.97 





272 



MEXICO. 



The principal countries represented in the import trade, of Mexico 
were the following: 



1900-1901. 



Increase ( + ) or 

decrease (—) 

1902. 



United States 
Great Britain 

Germany 

France 

Spain 

Belgium 

Italy 



«35, 189, 955. 85 
9, 924, 553. 34 
7, 079, 953. 15 
6, 564, 235. 65 
2, 856, 774. 65 
758, 706. 56 
536, 203. 15 



$39,016,676.08 
8, 264, 127. 08 
6,425,203.24 
6, 285, 858. 72 
2, 720, 072. 77 
1, 074, 743. 17 
397, 450. 60 



+83,826,720.23 

- 1,660,426.26 

- 627,749.91 

- 278,376.93 

- 136,701.88 
+ 316,036.61 

- 138,752.55 



Of the total imports during the year in reference $14,778,706.44 
were free of duty, while the dutiable goods amounted to $51,450,287. 

The leading among the free articles imported were railroad material, 
$2,372,746; coal, $2,123,869; coke, $2,088,670; lumber and timber, 
$1,875,347; mineral substances, $1,728,077; railway cars and coaches 
and repairs, $780,677. 

Among the dutiable goods the largest imports were as shown below: 

Animals and animal products: 

Live stock (all kinds) $567, 505 

Wool 192,707 

Eaw skins and hides 81, 102 

Canned meats, fish, butter, etc _ 516, 472 

Butter. 119j 558 

Condensed milk 71, 543 

Lard 766,757 

Cheese 181, 078 

Stearin 244, 610 

Furs and skins, and manufactures of 524, 880J 

Boots and shoes 705, 000| 

Manufactured animal products 355, 439| 

Vegetable substances: 

Ginned cotton 1, 271, 958 

Other fibers - - 126, 112 

Cacao (all kinds) 165, 834 

Dried fruits - . 165, 215 

Wheat and other cereals 1, 439, 400 

Almonds (all kinds) , shelled 168, 664 

Fresh fruits, etc 350, 639 

Virginia leaf tobacco 203, 976 

Olive oil - 124, 986 

Cotton-seed oil (crude) 904, 167 

Lumber and timber 217, 326 

Manufactures of wood 386, 803 

Bags and bagging - 308, 213 

Furniture (all kinds) 628, 910 

Mineral substances: 

Gold, silver, and platinum, and manufactures of 191, 020. 

Copper and alloys, in bars and plates - 127, 709;; 

Copper and alloys, manufactures of - 807, 731'; 

Manufactures of tin, lead, and zinc 206, 311 

Iron wire for fences 362, 956 

Plows and plowshares - ,.,,.,,,,,,,.,,, 79, 039 



IMPORTS. 273 

Mineral substances — Continued. 

Iron pipes (all sizes) $1, 040 

Agricultural implements 237 

Iron bands 210 

Iron sheets for roofing (all kinds) 662 

Tin plates. 237, 

Iron girders and beams 470 

Manufactures of tin, galvanized iron, etc 291 

Manufactures of iron, enameled, etc 145 

Manufactures of iron, not specified 506 

Nails, tacks, screws, etc 343 

Lime, Portland^cement, etc 410, 

Mineral oils (crude) 654 

Paraffin .' 289 

Glass bottles 300 

China and earthen ware 325 

Crystal and glassware, n. e. s 470 

Textiles, and manufactures of: 

Cotton thread, on spools 703 

Cotton thread, in balls and skeins 236 

Lace of all kinds, and manufactures of, n. e. s 225 

Cottons, not more than 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters 622 

The same, over 30 threads • -. 127 

Cotton prints, not exceeding 30 threads per square of 5 millimeters. . . 578 

The same, exceeding 30 threads 126 

Cotton cloth, openwork or embroidered 26 

Stockinet and manufactures of, n. e. s 351 

Cotton braids, trimmings, etc 137 

Elastic webbing 22, 

Cotton edgings, insertions, etc., embroidered with cotton, linen, wool, 

or silk 147 

Cloth, linen, hemp, or other like fibers, white, drab, or colored, plain 

woven, over 12 threads per square of 5 millimeters 204 

Woolen cloths (all weavings and kinds) 1, 297 

Silk fabrics (all weavings and kinds)' . . : _ , . 301 

Articles and manufactures of silk, n. e. s 292 

Cloth of silk warp, and cotton, linen, or wool filling, or vice versa. . . 412 

Articles of silk, with mixture of cotton, linen, or wool, all kinds 285 

Chemical and phai'maceutical products: 

Drugs and medicines of all kinds 289 

Colors, powdered, in crystals, or prepared 421 

Caustic soda and potash 287 

Sulphate of copper, iron, and ammonia 268 

Spirituous, fermented, and natural beverages: 

Rum, in glass. 700, 

Rum, in casks 166 

Beer and cider, in glass 161 

White and red wine, in the wood 1, 060 

White and red wine, in the glass 388 

Sparkling wines 166 

Paper and its manufactures: 

Wrapping paper 192 

Cigarette paper 351 

Cardboard, manufactures of, n. e. s 131 

509a— 04 18 



274 MEXICO. 

Machiiierjr and apparatuH: 

Pumps and turbines $161, 420 

Hardware of all kinds for trades 491 , 529 

Musical instruments (all kinds ) 368, 097 

Steam engines, and jiarts of 2, 190, 533 

Machinery and apparatus of all kinds, n. e. s., for power other than 

hand or foot 3, 636, 063 

The same, for foot or hand power 831, 686 

Printing and lithographic presses and accessories 168, 700 

Vehicles: 

Carts, wagons, and cars without springs, for freight 106, 089 

Wheelbarrows, one or two wheels 187, 721 

Carriages, all kinds, n. e. s 178, 423 

Arms and explosives: 

Breech-loading firearms, of all kinds, and accessories 211, 855 

Loaded and empty shells for firearms 135, 608 

Dynamite and other explosives, n. e. s 713, 101 

Fuses and detonators for mining 96, 816 

Miscellaneous: 

Lubricating oils 171, 620 

Manufactures of gutta-percha and celluloid, n. e. s 200, 345 

Hats, all kinds, and accessories - 356, 971 

Rubber belts for machiner.y 100, 267 

Rubber hose '.' 114, 119 

Iron, steel, and wood buildings 283, 776 

Perfumery 205, 818 

, TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 

Fig'ures issued by the Bureau of Statistics of tlie Treasury Depart- 
ment of the United States show that the trade of Mexico with the 
United States has grown more rapidl}^ than that with any other part 
of the world. The exports from the United Kingdom to Mexico grew 
from $8,000,000 in 1831 to $10,250,000 in 1900; those from France to 
Mexico fell from $9,000,000 in 1881 to 17,000,000 in 1899; those from 
Germany grew from 1700,000 in 1881 to $5,000,000 in 1899, and those 
from Spain from $871,000 in 1881 to a little less than $2,000,000 in 
1900; while from the United States the exports to Mexico grew from 
$11,000,000 in 1881 to $35,000,000 in 1900 and over $40,000,000 in 
1902. Imports of Mexican goods by the United States have expanded 
in the same period from $28,000,000 to $41,000,000. It will thus be 
seen that Mexico occupies a unique position in the ranks of the nations 
with which the United States transacts a considerable exchange, as it 
is with this countr}^ alone that a balance between exports and imports 
is preserved. From the West Indies the United States imports are 
nearly tvs^ice as large as its exports. To Canada the United States 
sells twice as much as she bu3^s; from South America the receipts are 
three times as g-reat as the exportation values, while Europe takes from 
the United States threefold what she finds a market for in the latter 
country. 



TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 



275 



Contiguity, quick rail communication, and the presence of large 
United States interests in Mexico are the principal causes of the rapid 
o-ains which the United States is making- over her rivals in the trade 
of Mexico. Over 9,000 miles of railroad are now in operation in Mex- 
ico, bringing all parts of that countr}' into direct communication with 
the United States, and according to the statement before quoted fur- 
nished to the State Department by the United States consul in Mex- 
ico, fully $400,000,000 of capital from the United States is invested in 
that country, and many citizens of the United States are located tem- 
porarily or otherwise in Mexico. Mexico is the one country south of 
the United States to which her exports show an appreciable growth. 
To the Central American States United States exports in 1890 were 
$5,296,478, and in 1902 they were $6,322,685; to South America in 
1890 United States exports were represented by $33,752,648, and in 
1902 they were $38,043,617; to the West Indies they were $33,197,222 
in 1890, and $43,632,951 in 1902, while to Mexico they were $13,285,287 
in 1890, and advanced to $39,873,606 in 1902 (fiscal year), while for, 
the calendar year 1902 they are estimated at more than $40,000,000. 

The most important exports from the United States to Mexico con- 
sist of manufactures of iron and steel, machinery, unmanufactured 
cotton, lumber, manufactured wood, manufactures of cotton, and gun- 
powder. Mexico's exports to the United States are chiefly textile 
fibers, especially sisal or henequen, coffee, hides, cattle, lead, copper, 
and tobacco, and in addition to these there are large quantities of sil- 
ver in ore and considerable gold which are not included in the figures 
given for exports of merchandise. 

In the year ended June 30, 1903, the value of goods imported from 
Mexico amounted to $41,313,711, while on the other hand, she pur- 
chased from United States merchants $42,257,106 worth. According 
to the latest available Mexican statistics, about 60 per cent of the total 
value of goods imported by that country in the fiscal 3^ear 1902 came 
from the United States, as compared with a little over 55 per cent in 
1890. Of the goods exported from Mexico the United States took 
about 80 per cent in 1902 and about 68 per cent in 1890. 

The following table shows the value of United States exports to and 
imports from Mexico at decennial periods from 1850 to 1900, and 
annuallv from that date: 



Year. 



Exports. 



1850 $2, 012, 827 

1860 i 5,324,713 

1870 1 5,859,700 

1880 7, 866, 493 

1890 1 13, 285, 287 



Imports. 




Year. 


S575, 200 


1900 


1,903,431 


1901 


2, 715, 665 


1902 


7, 209, 593 


1903 


22,690,915 





Exports. 



834,974,961 
36, 475, 350 
39, 873, 606 
42,257,106 



Imports. 



$28, 646, 053 
28,851,635 
40, 382, 596 
41, 313, 711 



276 MEXICO. 

This table shows that while United States commerce with Mexico 
varies considerably, the trade in both directions has more than main- 
tained its satisfactory volume. 

Copper and vegetable fibers form the largest individual items of 
United States imports from Mexico, and iron and steel products con- 
stitute the largest exports to that country from the United States. In 
1902 United States imports of copper ore and regulus were almost 
$10,000,000, as compared with less than $100,000 in 1892; imports of 
pigs, bars, ingots, etc., of copper increased in the same time from 
$84,000 to nearly $3,750,000. In 1892 no copper ore was exported to 
Mexico, but in 1902 nearly $700,000 worth was so exported. Of 
unmanufactured vegetable fibers (mainly sisal grass or henequen), 
United States imports increased from $5,500,000 to over $12,000,000, 
while of the manufactures of these materials, imports increased from 
$6,000 to nearly $650,000, and the exports from $58,000 to $228,000. 
Hides and skins were imported to the value of nearly $3,500,000 in 
1902 — more than double the 1892 value — while of leather and its manu- 
factures the value of exports increased from $61,000 to $818,000. Im- 
ports of coffee fell off during the decade from over $4,000,000 to less 
than $3,000,000. 

Exports of iron and steel not onl}^ constitute the largest item of 
trade between Mexico and the United States, but show the largest 
growth in the last ten years, exports of machinery alone increasing 
from about $1,500,000 to over $7,000,000. Other items which show 
large gains are breadstuffs, vehicles, chemicals, coal and coke, copper 
ore, vegetable oils, and lumber. 

The following table shows the values of some of the principal articles 
which made up United States trade with Mexico in 1902: 

IMPOKT.S. 

Cattle $768, 164 

Chicle 419, 248 

Vanilla beany 390, 344 

Coffee * 2, 836, 614 

Copper ore 9, 934, 097 

Copper pigs, bars, ingots, etc 3, 716, 749- 

Sisal grass or henequen 11, 609, 087 

Other unmanufactured vegetable fibers 582, 466 

Hides and skins 3, 489, 647 

Lead in ore and base bullion 3, 622, 036 

Mahogany 445, 374 

EXPORTS. 

Agricultural implements 230, 324 

Cattle 225, 138 

Breadstuffs 1, 722, 915 

Cars, carriages, etc 1,220,189 

Chemicals, dyes, etc 1, 088, 547 



TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 277 

Coal and coke - $2, 687, 169 

Copper ore ^^^' "' ' 

Unmanufactured cotton 1, 275, 200 

Cotton manufactures - 661, 721 

Glass and glassware - - 379, 105 

Gunpowder and other explosives 979, 233 

Leather, and manufactures of - 818, 212 

Iron and steel manufactures: 

Builders' hardware - 685, 025 

Sewing machines - 356, 434 

Machinery 7, 094, 112 

Steam engines - 918, 222 

Another 5,129,157 

Mineral oils - 760, 202 

Vegetable oils 1, 143, 020 

Lard - -- 702,082 

Timber 648,416 

Lumber - - - 2,000,119 

Wood manufactures 1, 073, 677 

The United States Treasury Bureau of Statistics has published a 
table showing the rapid growth in United States exports to Mexico in 
the fifteen years from 1887 to 1901, a result due to the increased facili- 
ties for transportation since the opening- of the Mexican Central and 
Mexican National railways. Till then the trade of Mexico was carried 
on by British houses, but now the British trade is conducted by a few 
agencies, which, by means of samples and catalogues, procure orders 
for goods, for there is in Mexico to-day no important British com- 
mercial establishment. For the fifteen 3'ears, the exports of merchan- 
dise from the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, and 
Spain were as follows (in millions of dollars): 



Year. 


United 
States. 


United 
Kingdom. 


France. 


Ger- 
many. 


Spain. 


1887 


7.9 
9.9 
11.5 
13.2 
14.9 
14.3 
19.6 
12.8 
15.0 
19.5 
23.4 
21.2 
25.5 
34.9 
36.5 


5.8 
5.7 
7.9 
9.8 
9.5 
7.2 
6.1 
6.4 
8.1 
8.2 
8.4 
9.3 
10.7 
10 5 


7.6 

8.5 

10.8 

10.7 

8.8 

6.8 

5.4 

5.8 

7.5 

6.4 

5.1 

5.8 

.1 


1.1 
1.6 
3.5 
3.5 
3.4 
2.9 
2.9 
2.7 
4.0 
3.7 
4.3 
4.9 
5.4 


1.3 


1888 


1.3 


1889. 


1.6 


1890 


1.8 


1891 . 


1.5 


1892 


1.4 


1893 


1.3 


1894 

1895 

1896 


1.3 
1.5 
1.7 


1897 


1.5 


1898 


2.1 


1899 


2.9 


1900 




1901 





















Figures for 1902 and 1903 are 39.8 and 42.2, respectively, for the 
United States. 

Exports from Mexico to the United States declared through the 
United States consulate-general in Mexico City and five of the consu- 
lar agencies — Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Zaca- 



278 



mp:xio(). 



teca>s — .subordinate to it, show that during the tiscal year ending June 
30, 1903, such exports amounted to the following figures in gold: 

City of Mexico |2, 895, 860. 55 

Guadalajara - 145, 296. 48 

Guanajuato 132, 460. 5] 

Oaxaca 200, 404. 70 

Puebla 511, 274. 95 

Zacatecas 316, 963. 42 



Total - 4, 202, 260. 61 

The principal articles were, in round numbers: Gold bullion, 
$2,334,600; silver bullion, $348,160; gold dust, $4,250; silver ore, 
$142,000; lead ore, $43,450; gold ore, $10,000; coffee, $87,000; broom 
root or zacaton, $38,000; hides, wet salted, $184,000; other hides, 
$4,500; skins of all kinds, $742,400; antique furniture, $5,000; linloe 
essence, $10,100; pearls, $10,000; onyx, $12,000; hats (palm), $49,200; 
hats (straw), $3,000; vanilla, $3,200; chile, $6,000; and garlic, $4,700. 

Iron cmd steel imixjvts. — The following table covers Mexico's impor- 
tations of iron and steel for building purposes during the years noted: 



Iron and 
Fi.scalyear. b'uifdSg ' 
purposes. 


Machines 
and appa- 
ratus. 


Fiscal year. 


Iron and 
steel for 
building 
purposes. 


Machines 
and appa- 
ratus. 


1893-94 SI, 250, 582 

1894-95 ' 1 543,451 


S3, 399, 331 
3,574,507 
4,942,920 
4,347,428 
6,039,476 


1898-99 


$2,253,686 
4,150,704 
3,697,372 
3,946,888 


17, 733, 407 
9, 532, 270 
9,124,751 
8, 095, 502 


1899-1900 


1895-96 1 2, 015, 769 

1896-97 -. . 2,066,387 


1900-1901 

1901-2 


1897-98 ' 2,203,199 











The importations of machines and apparatus in the fiscal year 
1902-3 amounted to $7,431,871, against $5,594,513 for a like period 
in 1902. 

COAL TRADE. 

The British consul at Veracruz reports to the British Foreign Office 
on the coal trade of his consular district, which includes the ports of 
Veracruz, Tuxpam, and Coatzacoalcos in the State of Veracruz, Fron- 
tera in the State of Tabasco, Laguna de Terminos and Campeche in 
the State of Campeche, and Progreso in the State of Yucatan. This 
report is published in the Board of Trade Journal of Great Britain of 
January 22, 1903, and sa3"S in part as follows: 

"With the exception of Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, and Progreso, the 
importations of coal through the ports mentioned may be considered 
as nil, as the entire trade would not amount to more than 1,000 tons 
in the course of a year. 

" Veracruz. — The quantity of coal arriving at the port of Veracruz 
during the first six months of 1902 amounted in all to 104,807 tons, 
the principal part of this supply being drawn from the United States, 
the figures being 70,774 tons from that country, 34,025 from Great 
Britain, and a trifling quantitj^ from Belgium. 



COAL TRADE. 279 

"The coal from the United States was drawn for the most part from 
the State of West Virginia, whereas the stocks received from Great 
Britain consisted entirely of briquets, or patent fuel, shipped from 
Cardiff and district, and were for the use of the Mexican Railwa}^ 
Company. The average rate for charters at Veracruz is from 200 to 
400 tons delivery per day, Sundays and holidays excepted. The cur- 
rent rate of stevedoring is 35 cents per ton (Mexican currency) for 
patent fuel, and for ordinary coal 45 cents. 
H "The average selling price of coal during the period under review 
^ was from $11.50 to $13 per ton f . o. b. railwa}^ companies' cars. From 
this must be deducted $1.75 for dock dues and other charges, which, 
I calculated at the average rate of exchange during the six months of the 
present year, left a net price to the importer of from 18s. to 21s. 
Owing to the closing of a large number of mines in the United States, 
due to the coal strike, sterling prices advanced considerably. 

^'■Progreso. — The average amount of coal consumed at the port of 
Progreso ranges from 800 to 1,000 tons per month, and is practically^ 
all of United States origin. The average price for coal ranged from 
$20 to $22 currency. This high price is mainly due to the fact that 
ocean rates rule much higher to Progreso than to Veracruz, prin- 
cipally owing to the facilities for discharging vessels being of the most 
indifferent manner. 

" Coatzacoalcos. — The importations of coal have been limited to some 
few thousand tons introduced for the use of the National Railway of 
Tehuantepec and the harbor improvements being carried out at th.e 
two terminals of this line, Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, respectively. 
Now that the railway has been repaired and put into such condition 
that the handling of public merchandise can be effected, the estimated 
coal consumption in order to meet the requirements of dredges, rail- 
way and coast steamers, connected with same, will probably amount to 
about 3,000 tons per month and upward." 

Tampico — The coal and coke imported into Tampico during the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, according to figures forwarded by 
United States Consul Magill, at Tampico, to the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor of the United States, was as follows: 

Coal: Tons. Tons. 

United States .- 280, 906 

English 31, 620 

Total 312,526 

Coke: 

German 142, 494 

United States 29, 860 

English 5, 216 - 

Total ^ 177,570 

Total coal and coke 490, 096 



280 MEXICO. 

The greater part of the United States coal was from Pen.sacola, J|| 
Fla., under contract for the Mexican Central Railwa}^ and was fur- 
nished b}^ the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, which has excellent 
facilities for loading coal into vessels at Pensacola. The German coke 
was from Westphalia, Germany, and was shipped from the ports of 
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp. 

A new dock for the discharge of coal and coke, under construction 
by the Mexican Central Railway, is to be provided with modern 
machinery for quick discharge of coal cargoes. 

Paper trade. — The Norwegian consul-general in Mexico, reporting 
on the paper trade of the Republic, states that Norwegian goods are 
recognized as the best that are imported into Mexico. Straw pulp is 
imported, as well as bleached sulphite pulp. Mechanical pulp is 
scarcely consumed. The material is imported to Mexico free of duty, 
provided it is perforated, the holes being 10 centimeters from each 
other in all directions. Wood pulp (chemical as well as mechanical) 
must be shipped thoroughl}^ dry in order to be salable. The pulp is 
forwarded in rolls or bales of 100 kilograms. The packing consists 
of coarse linen cloth, paper, or thick wrapping paper fastened by iron 
hoops or steel wire. Tying by means of cord is considered objection- 
able. Low and medium grades of wrapping paper are manufactured 
in Mexico, where the raw material is partly imported from abroad. 
Gray and blue wrapping paper for sugar packing is sold from 10 to 
25 cents (Mexican currency) per kilogram; manila paper in rolls or 
reams, from 25 to 35 cents per kilogram. 

Cheap cellulose and chemical pulp paper are imported from Norway. 
The prices range from 80 cents to %\ per ream. Cheap manila paper 
is imported from the United States and is quoted at 2i cents (gold) 
per pound. Better grades are imported, but in lesser quantities. The 
duty is 6 cents per kilogram (legal weight). Tissue papers formerly 
were chiefly imported from England, but the cheaper grade that is 
now imported from Germany has diminished the English imports. 
There is no considerable business in this article. The quotations vary, 
the color being the foundation for their fixation. Assorted tissue 
papers are sold in very great quantities in Mexico. Each firm has a 
difi'erent assortment. The duty is 10 cents per kilogram (legal weight). 

Envelopes come chiefly from the United States and German5^ 
English goods are of very fair and elegant quality, but during recent 
years the Mexican manufactories have made good progress in the 
making of envelope papers, and the home goods compete strongly 
with the foreign. The dut}?^ is 25 cents per kilogram (legal weight). 



PORTS AND CUSTOMS DISTRICTS. 



The ports of Mexico open to foreign commerce are divided into 
Gulf and Pacific ports, as follows: 

Gulf ports. — Campeche, Coatzacoalcos, Cheturaal, Frontera, Isladel 



TRADE MOVEMENT. 281 

Caruien, Isla do Mujeres, Progreso, Puerto Morelos, Tampico, Tuxpam, 
and Veracruz. 

Pacific forts. — Acapulco, Altata, Bahiadela Magdalena, Guaymas, 
La Paz, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, 
San Jose del Cabo, Santa Rosalia, Todos Santos, and Tonala. 

The ports through which the coast trade is carried on on the Gulf 
side are Alvarado, Campeche, Celestun, Coatzacoalcos, Champoton, 
Chetumal, Frontera, Isla Ag-uada, Isla del Carmen, Nautla, Palizada, 
Progreso, Puerto Morelos, Tampico, Tecolutla, Tlacotalpam, Tuxpam, 
and Veracruz; and on the Pacific side, Acapulco, Agiabampo, Altata, 
Bahia de la Magdalena, Chacagua, Guaymas, Isla del Carmen, Isla 
Maria Madre, La Paz, Las Penas, Loreto, Manzanillo, Mazatlan, 
Muleje, Perihuete, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, San Bias, San Jose del 
Cabo, San Quintin, Todos Santos, Santa Rosalia, Santo Domingo, 
Soconusco, Teconapa, Tonala, Topolobampo, and Zihuatanejo. 

The frontier custom-houses are Ciudad Juarez, Ciudad Porfirio 
Diaz, Laredo, and Nogales. 

By a decree of March 31, 1903, a new custom-house was established 
at a point called I^as Vacas, on the Rio Grande frontier and within the 
limits of the State of Coahuila. It is known as the "Aduana Fron- 
teriza de Las Vacas," the jurisdiction of which commences at a point 
25 kilometers north from Colombia, in Nuevo Leon, and continues for 
25 kilometers north of Las Vacas, where the jurisdiction of the Ciudad 
Porfirio Diaz custom-house ends. 

The domestic trade of the Republic is carried on mainly by means 
of the railways and coastwise vessels, while the foreign trade with the 
United States is maintained by railroads and ocean steamers, and with 
the other nations of the world b}'^ steam and sailing vessels. 

The "Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal" for 1901-2 estimates the for- 
eign trade movement as follows: 

The number of incoming vessels direct from abroad, at the Gulf 
ports and Pacific ports, was 906 steamers with a cargo of 906,999 met- 
ric tons of 1,000 kilograms, and 553 sailing vessels with a cargo of 
187,701 metric tons, or a total of 1,459 vessels with a total cargo of 
1,094,700 metric tons, divided as follows: Gulf ports, 671 steamers and 
420 sailing vessels; and Pacific ports, 235 steamers and 133 sail; 1,091 
vessels for the Gulf and 368 for the Pacific ports, under the flags of 
the following nationalities: German, 92; American, 420; English, 483; 
Norwegian, 304; French, 14; Spanish, 68; Cuban, 9; Mexican, 14; 
Russian, 9; Chilean, 18; Italian, 7; Danish, 9; Uruguayan, 1; Dutch, 
6; Swedish, 5, sailing from the following countries: United States, 
England, Germany, Belgium, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Spain, France, 
and from other countries. 

The outgoing foreign direct trade was carried in 1,423 vessels, with 
a total cargo of 312,557 metric tons, the Gulf ports being credited with 



282 



MEXICO. 



1,064 vessels, the cargo of which umounted to 305,429 metric tons, and 
the Pacific ports with 359 vessels, and a total cargo of 7,128 metric 
tons. The principal nationalities of the vessels were as follows: Eng- 
lish, 466; American, 404; Norwegian, 309; German, 89; French, 14; 
Spanish, 67; Chilean, -19, and Cuban, 11; their destination being, the 
United States, England, Colombia, Spain, Germany, Cuba, France, 
Chile, and others going to Belgium, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Haiti, 
Holland, Jtal}^, Russia, and Salvador. 

The indirect foreign trade was as follows, 955 incoming vessels with 
178,811 metric tons of merchandise, and 708 outgoing vessels with 
89,418 metric tons, of which 544 were from the United States and 448 
to that countiy, from and to Colombia, to German}^ England, France, 
Italy. Belgium, and other countries. 

Internal trade was represented by 7,106 incoming vessels with a 
total cargo of 208,000 metric tons, and 7,180 outgoing vessels with 
193,188 metric tons cargo. This trade was carried on through 18 
Gulf and 27 Pacific ports, the incoming vessels engaged comprising 
6,358 Mexican, 323 American, and 274 English, while the outgoing 
vessels comprised 6,337 Mexican, 366 American, and 315 English. 

The total navigation for 1901-2 was as follows: 





Steamers, 


Sail vessels. 




Number. 


Tonnage. 


Number. 


Tonnage. 




5,700 
5, 497 


1,235,254 
479, 195 


3,820 
3,814 


246,257 




115,968 






Total 


11, 197 


1,714,449 


7,634 


362,225 







The total tonnage was: 



Imports 

Exports 

Coastwise . . 

Total 



steamers. 



1,080,537 
333, 744 
300, 168 



1,714,449 



Sail 
vessels. 



192, 974 

68, 231 

101,020 



Total. 



1,273,511 
401,975 
401,188 



2, 076, 674 



A resume of the freight carried on the railways of the northern 
frontier, in the trade between Mexico and the United States, shows 
the following: 





Imports. 


Exports. 


Total. 


Frontier custom-houses. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 


Number 
of cars. 


Tons. 




7, 729 
9, 182 
18,138 
2,258 


123, 664 

138,371 

228, 800 

26,914 


2,506 
8,386 
1,304 
1,934 


40, 276 
23, 236 
15,749 
30,016 


10,235 
17,668 
19,442 
4,192 


163, 940 


Porfirio Diaz . . . . 


161, 607 




244,649 




56,929 






Total 


37,307 


517,749 


14, 130 


109,276 


51,437 


627, 025 







TARIFF. 283 

The custom-house receipts growing out of this trade show an increase 
of $391,696.78, as compared with the corresponding period of the pre- 
ceding year, as follows: 



Import duties. . 
Export duties.. 
All other dues . 

Total 



«26, 255, 087. 89 

779, 819. 39 

1,070,967.98 



126, 391, 048. 78 

863, 855. 71 

1,142,667.55 



28, 105, 875. 26 



28, 397, 572. 04 



TAKIFJ\ 

The tariff law now in force in Mexico was promulgated on June 12, 
1891, and went into effect on November 1, following, several amend- 
ments having since been made. A s3mopsis of the General Regulations 
of the Tariff' Law of the Mexican United States (Tarifa de la Ordenanza 
General de Aduanas de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), in so far as it 
treats of the obligations of shippers, passengers, etc., is given below.^ 
The import tariff contains over 900 different articles, divided into gen- 
eral heads, these again being subdivided into classes. The latest 
modifications and amplifications, under date of February 4, 1904, have 
been published by the International Union of American Republics,* 
together with the official explanatory notes which both facilitate the 
clear understanding of the subject and fix more exactly the character 
of the merchandise coming under the several classifications. The fol- 
lowing notes are of interest and self-explanatory: 

'"'Note 153. — By ''tissues of smooth texture'' must be understood tis- 
sues composed of single thread, in which the woof threads, in crossing 
from one side to the other, pass above the pair threads and below the 
odd threads of the warp one by one, said threads crossing each other 
in a contrary direction to return to the point of departure — that is to 
say, passing above the odd threads and below the pair threads. 

"Tissues obtained by any other process of weaving, as well as those 
woven in the above manner, but which, instead of being composed of 
a single thread, comprise either two or more parallel threads, entwin- 
ing at the same time the woof or warp threads, or threads of several 
ends, shall not be considered as tissues of smooth texture. 

"Open-work tissues, or drawn work, either of cotton or linen, shall 
not be considered tissues of smooth texture. 

"To ascertain the number of threads composing a tissue of smooth 
texture, a lens shall be used known ]t)y the name of 'thread counter,' 
having a space of one centimeter side. The warp and woof threads 

«The International Bureau of the American Republics will furnish any further 
information in this regard upon application. 

6 Monthly Bulletin of the International Bureau of the American Republics, March, 
1904, page 709. 



284 . MEXICO. 

found ill this space are added together, ignoring fractions of threads, 
and if the total can be exactly divided by two, the quotient shall be 
considered as the number of threads that the tissue contains in a half 
square centimeter per side; but if the sum is not exactlj^ divisible by 
two, the fraction of a thread resulting in the quotient shall be consid- 
ered as an entire thread and added as a unit to those obtained in the 
quotient. In this operation care should be taken that the edge of the 
square or space to be examined by the thread counter corresponds as 
nearly as possible with the space separating one thread from another. 

"No account shall be taken of a difference of two or three threads 
when, in any part whatever of the tissue, the number of threads tallies 
with the declaration of the importer. 

^''Note 322. — This section includes machinerj'^ and apparatuses of all 
kinds not specified, moved by motive power, windlass, pedal, or lever, 
provided they are intended for use in agriculture, mining, industries, 
or arts. 

"By machinery is understood a collection of pieces or parts for gen- 
erating or transmitting power, or for performing an}^ other operation, 
operating always by regular movements and periods. 

"The machinery or apparatuses which are not intended for the 
industries, agriculture, mining, or the arts are not included in this 
section, and are dutiable according to their material and kind. In this 
class are included t3^pewriters and adding machines, and, in general, 
all apparatuses and small machines for domestic use. 

"jSIeehanical tools, provided alwa3^s they operate with regular and 
periodic movements, are embraced in this section. Those which are 
not covered b}^ these conditions pay the quota provided for in sec- 
tion 793. 

" Loose parts and pieces of machines, included in section 800, are all 
those which can not be put to other uses, inasmuch as those which are 
capable of being employed for other purposes shall pay dut}^ in con- 
formity with the tariff according to material and class or kind.'' 

Shipping regulations. — The following are the principal regulations 
governing the shipping of merchandise: . 

I. Shippers of goods to Mexican ports must supply an invoice of 
the goods shipped, even when such goods are for the public service 
of the Nation, or the States, owing to a special concession, or are free 
from import duties. Separate invoices, in triplicate or quadruplicate, 
as the law may require, must be made out for each consignee. 

II. Shippers of goods may include in one package several bales, 
boxes, mats, rolls, 5r any other container inclosing goods of a like 
nature, provided the consular invoice expresses the number of pack- 
ages contained in each outer covering, bale, or box. Should this not 
be done, or the failure not corrected within ninety-six hours after the 
entry of the vessel at the receiving custom-house, a fine not exceeding 

will be imposed. 



SHIPPING EEGULATIONS. 285 

From this rule are excepted: 

First. Heav}^ goods, which are usually tied together, such as iron and 
steel bars, pipes, metal sheets, boards for packing boxes and roofs, 
buckets and pails of wood or metal, parts of machinery, all similar 
goods, and free articles. 

Second. Cans or immediate wrappings or containers of goods packed 
in each package. 

Third. Piece goods in bales or cases; bottles, jars, or flasks containing 
elementary substances, drugs, perfumery, etc.; and, in general, small 
parcels, bags, boxes, or any other kind of packages put up in a strong 
outer container. 

III. Consular invoices must declare separately the gross, net, and 
legal"' weights, as the law may require, of packages which, while of the 
same article, come in different parcels. 

Packages containing cotton, linen, wool or silk textures, or goods 
may be declared collectively with their joint weights or measures in 
cas.^ the goods are of a like tariff class, and their difference in weight 
does not exceed 10 kilograms. 

Any infraction of this provision is punishable by a fine of $50, 
though the consignee is allowed until the inspector is named to dis- 
patch the goods in which to correct errors. 

IV. Interlineations, scratchingy, erasures, or corrections causing a 
want of uniformity in the several copies of a consular invoice are pro- 
hibited. Should the want of uniformit}^ affect elements essential to 
the determination of the duties, the latter will be regulated by the 
declaration ' ' carrying the highest rate among the disagreeing invoices. " 

Such faults are tolerated in the cases following- 
First. When they have been rectified by written explanations on 
the margin of the documents before taking out the consular certificate. 

« By net weight is understood the real weight of the merchandise, without the 
immediate coverings (almas), packages, or wrappings. 

By legal iveight is understood the weight of the goods, including only the imme- 
diate coverings, wrappings, vessel, cardboard, wood, or tin in which they may come 
inside of the outer box, which serves as the general receptacle. When goods taxed 
on the legal weight have no immediate covering, but come loose in an outside box, 
the intrinsic weight of the goods shall be considered the legal weight. In ascertain- 
ing the legal weight no account must be taker! of the straw or shavings with which 
the packages may be packed in the outside case, nor of the weight of the latter. 

By gross weight is understood the weight of the merchandise with all its cases and 
wrappings inside and outside, without allowance for fillings, nettings, or hoops. 
When a package contains several articles taxed on the gross weight, the custom- 
liouse will apportion the tax among them according to their respective legal weights. 
Articles taxed on the gross weight shall pay on the total weight of the merchandise 
when they come without wrappings or packings, or contained in cases which are 
accessible. 

When fabrics having fringes are dutiable on the square meter, the measurement 
shall include such fringes. If they are dutiable according to weight, the weight must 
include that of the fringes. 



:*S6 MKXictt. 

Second. AMien, notwithstandiug the corrections, the several copie- 
f the same document arrive. 

Third. When the interlineations, erasures, etc.. relate to poiui- 
havinof iK> bearing- upon the question of duties. 

\*. AVheu the same pciekaofe contains goods paying diiieivut duties, 
inehiding some paying on the gross weight, shippers must dei'lare !■ 
the invoice, aside from the total weight of the package, the legal 
weight of each article contained therein, in order to arrive at the 
proper distribution of the gross weight. The declaring of the legaJ 
weight must be done without prejudice to the legal weight, piece, pair, 
thousand, or measures of the other goods not taxed on the gross 
weight. 

VI. Invoices of packages containing only samples do not need ctwt- 
siilar c-ertifieation. The invoices need only declare the vessel on whicfc 
ihey are shipped, name of consignee, port of destination, mark, num- 
ber, quantity, and class of packages, efross weight of each, and generic 
iesigTiation of the kind of samples. 

Failure to comply with the foregoing will incur a line not exceeding 
?o for each package. 

VU. Shippers of goods must present for eertiiication. before the 
sailing of the vessel, four copies of each invoice to the Mexican con- 
~"il. consular or ecHmnercial agent resi din g in the place of shipment < r 
in the port where the vessel is loading. Three copies must be left in 
the consulate, and the copy with certificate and receipt attached, which 
the Mexican official will deliver, is to be retained. This copy with 
the cc»iisnlar receipt attached shippers must transmit to the consignees 
of the goods. 

^TII. In localities where there is no Mexican consul or consular 
agent, shippers will only make out invoices in triplicate, conforming 
otherwise with the foregoing provisions, transmitting on the same 
day. by registered maiL one copy to the Department of the Treasury 
and another to th? collector of customs at the port of destination. 

Shippers must require from the postmaster the necessary receipts. 
~li "a must be forwarded to the consignee at the port of destination. 
Tiiere is no deviation from this requirement, and in default of an 
invoice with consular certincate or registeredTnail receipt, which must 
be presented by the consignee at the cnstcnn-house. is punishable by a 
nne in d'>iil»le the anxmnt of duties on the goods imported. 

IX. Invoices should be written in Spanish: but they will be admitted 
if written in any odier well-known tongue when shippers are unac- 
^Tiainted with the official language of the Eepublic. 

X. Consignees of imported merchandise are responsible before the 
law for any infractions of the regulations by the carriers or shippers 
thereof. 

XI. Packages should lave "i. mark and numfier. ShoiUd 



-HlI-^rN'fJ EE«iri.AlI«-»2>-r. ^^ 



packages hare marks or immbei^ odier than tiiCK^e ^ovn by tke co»- 
rfukr inroiee aod manife&t the eon^nee will be fined fl for ea^ 
package so marked or mimbered. Rrai naaies or tattborj addiessei^ 
aniiormlv stamped <mi packages will not be eonsidfexed as TkilatiTe of 
this regnJation- provided sadi initial?, figures, and Bombers ar^ tjiist 
br which each packa^ may be di-ftingnished frtmi the rest. 

XTT. lire stock* shipments to Mexi«» most be governed by tie 
provisions following: 

First. The shipper most appear before me ^I-x^ li— •:-onsal statiooed 
at the point from which the ^lipment is to tie made expresang^ his 
intention to make the same. 

Sectmd. The «Mi5al must secure a veterinary expert who. at the 
expense of the shipper, must examine the live stoek is question and 
issae the proper health certificare. 

Third- This certificate will be ^'s^^J by tn*^ ~ai<i «_->-»iistii and sfaoold 
accompany t!^ consular invoice to he presented at tbe ci^bo^hboi^e c£ 
entry. 

Fourth. On the live -Dx-k being entered at the cfisii)Di4ioose the 
collector will designate an expert veterinary to examine the stock at 
the expense of the shipper and issue his eertifieate- 

Sixth. If the stock is in a healthy condition it will be di^sitcfaed and 
delivered. If. on the other hand, it is diseased and d>e f<Mm of ail- 
ment is sufficiently proved the. collector will decline to dispateb the 
stock and will notify the proper authority in order that the stock may 
be immediately sent out of the country, in which case no duties will 
be leviel. 

XIII. Fresh -metit -hipmenu? to Mexico will be regu^ted by the 
same provisions a^ apply to live-stock im^portations save that the vet- 
erinary expert must examine the beeves before and after killing, and 
the meat must be shipped in refrigerators or so preserved physieafly 
or chemically that there will be no diange in its condition- The meats 
on their introduction are subject to inspection by the Board of Heahh- 
at the expense of the importer. 

Small shipments of fresh meat intended for the frontier secti^aients 
need not be shipped in refrigerators or otherwise preserved, shocdd 
the collectors of customs deem it unnecessary. 

XIV. For the certification of the documents which masters of vessels 
and shippers of goods must present, consols will charge as follows; 

1. F<» certifyii^ blip's inaniiest con\eyii^ goods w d» RepcC'ik- fl0.ti© 

2. For eertiiTii^ miaiui^st of ^lip in ballasc -LCO 

3. For cextifyxi]^ ewji gi* of inTokes: 

If the Tsfaie of the $;oods dedbured in the inTolee does iiC'5 exotei #1"X» — 1. 09 

If the Tsloe exceais flOO, bat not fl . CCO - - ^00 

For eveiy excess ol §500 or feactkio ih!««j£ - -- 1-60 

« Horse?, sheiep. aijat?, mnles. and asees pay 'iTrrr r^^r ^.r-^ "- -ir: 1^ jl:- i r^j^s T^y 
weisht. 



288 MEXICO. 

4. For certificatea of any kind to masters or shippers $2. 00 

5. When said last-named certificates are requested in dupHcate, triplicate, etc., 

for each extra copy 1. 00 

6. For certifying to errors in invoices, each set 2. 00 

7. For certifying to each set of permits to import through frontier custom- 
houses - 25 

Consuls or consular agents before issuing- the certificate will require 
the affirmation or oath, according to the law of the country where 
made, of the manufacturer or seller to the effect that the value given 
the goods in the invoice is the true value. This oath must be sub- 
scribed on the margin of a copj^ of the invoice of sale. 

XV. Samples intended to make known the goods they represent 
are entitled to certain privileges, as follows: 

Pieces of cloth fabrics not exceeding 20 centimeters (7i inches) in 
length, and which may include the whole width of the cloth, and all 
articles which by reason of not being complete are useless for sale are 
admitted free. 

Samples of complete articles, such as manufactures of an}^ kind, 
hardware, dry goods, handkerchiefs, shawls, hoiser}^, shirts, etc., must 
either pay the corresponding duties or be rendered unsalable by cut- 
tings or perforations. 

When dry goods or hardware sample cases contain complete articles^ 
paying different duties, and the weight of each class can not be deter- 
mined, the whole case will pay the rate attachable to the highest duty- 
pajdng article contained therein. 

Samples of complete articles an importer may be interested in pre- 
serving for reexporting may be admitted duty free, provided the] 
collector is satisfied he can identify the articles when exported; but] 
the collector will require a bond in double the amount of the duties, 
giving the party in interest up to six months time within which toj 
reexport the articles through the same custom-house. 

If the interested party shall present himself within the time men- 
tioned to pay the duties corresponding to the articles, they will bej 
received; but if these are not reexported within said term the bond 
will be forfeited. 

The owner of samples desiring to export them through a custom- 1 
house other than that of entry must secure the permission of the] 
Department of the Treasur3\ 

XVI. Passengers landing at Mexican ports must show their baggage 
to the custom-house officer having its inspection in charge, and should 
they bring small quantities of articles for gifts or personal use whicli 
are dutiable thej^ must make the fact known to the officer before the 
baggage is opened. 

XVII. Passengers bringing with them, either in their baggage or 
separatel}", merchandise the duties on which exceed $100 are bound to 
declare them in a consular invoice, conforming to the regulations for 



SHIPPING REGULATIONS. 289 

imports of merchandise. All articles which because of their class or 
(uantity are not deemed to be of personal use are considered as 
oerchandise. 

XVIII. The following are considered as passengers' baggage and 
ire duty free: 

First. Personal apparel, if not excessive, the collectors being judges 
3f the amount in view of the passengers' circumstances. 

Second. Articles worn or of personal use, such as jewelry, watch, 
chain, cane, etc., and one or two firearms, with their accessories and 
up to 100 cartridges. 

Third. Instruments and tools the most necessary and indispensable 
for the exercise of a profession or trade, if the passengers are profes- 
sors, artists, or artisans, in the understanding that pianos, organs, or 
barrel organs, and materials and accessories for the installation of 
laboratories, studios, or offices are excluded. 

Fourth. Ninety-nine cigars, 40 packages of cigarettes, and half a 
kilogram of snuff or chewing tobacco, if the passengers are adults. 

XIX. Should the passengers be artists of an opera, dramatic, circus, 
or other company, besides the foregoing articles they may introduce 

j|f ree the costumes and scenery which form part of their baggage, being 
bound to reexport the same within one year. 

XX. Passengers bringing with them any household furniture will 
be allowed a rebate of duty corresponding to the depreciation of value 
in consequence of its use. 

XXI. Should passengers declare that their baggage includes nothing 
but articles of personal use, and the inspection show that the}^ bring 
dutiable merchandise, such merchandise shall pay double duties. 

XXII. Most of the maritime custom-houses have warehouses 
attached, where goods may be left on deposit, which is limited to one 
month if the goods are perishable, or not longer than six months if 
otherwise. If not withdrawn within fifteen days after the expiration 
of the six months, the goods are sold at public auction. 

Shippers should bear in mind that the weights and measurements of 
articles should be given in the metric system; that articles should be 
packed in cases or containers, according to the class of weight upon 
which duties are assessed — that is, goods upon which duties are charged 
on the gross weight should not be packed with goods paying by net or 
legal weight, or vice versa. 

By treaty provisions between the United States and Mexico, vessels 
of the former country are on the same footing in Mexican ports as 
Mexican vessels as regards tonnage, harbor, and light dues, pilotage,'* 
salvage, and all local charges. The coasting trade is, however, reserved 
by either nation for its own vessels. United States vessels may import 

« Pilotage is not obligatory under the laws of Mexico. 
509a— 04 19 



290 MEXICO. 

into Mexican ports merchandise the growth or manufacture of the 
United States on the same terms as if they were imported in Mexican 
bottoms. The duties are to be no higher or other than those levied 
on similar merchandise the growth or manufacture of the most favored 
nation. In United States ports Mexica-n vessels and merchandise are 
accorded the same privileges enjoyed by American vessels and mer- 
chandise in Mexican ports. 

Where there are no Mexican vessels to carry on the coastwise trade 
foreign sailing and steam vessels are permitted to engage in such 
trade. When the quantity of merchandise prepared for shipment from 
one port to another of the Republic is so small that it would not suffice 
to fill a Mexican vessel its shipment upon a foreign vessel is allowed. 

On May 1, 1896, the Mexican Constitution was amended so as to 
abolish the alcabala or interstate customs duties, which it inherited 
from Spain, and which had for so many years acted as a stumbling 
block to the internal trade of the country. 

Wew import duties. — The new import duties collected in the Repub- 
hc are regulated by the following provisions contained in a decree 
bearing date of November 25, 1902: 

On and after the 1st day of January, 1903, the laws of Novembej 
30, 1888, and May 12, 1896, creating respectively the 2 per cent port 
works tax and the T per cent stamp tax on import duties shall bl 
abolished. On and after the same date, import duties on foreigi 
merchandise brought into the Republic shall continue to be adjustec 
in accordance with the rates set forth in the import schedule, but the 
sum paj^able according to that adjustment will be reduced by .50 pei 
cent, and the amount thus found multiplied by the sum fixed by the 
department of Finance for the settlement of duties during the month ii 
question, which in no case will be less than 220 per cent. The produc| 
represents the amount of import duties to be paid by the importer. 

In order to determine every month the rate of settlement referred 
to, the Department of Finance will take the average of the rates al 
which the banks of Mexico City have sold sight drafts on New Yorl 
on each of the days comprised between the 1st and 25th of the monti 
in which the announcement of the rate is to be made, making a reduc] 
tion of 30 per cent, or less if the liabilities of the nation payable ii 
foreign coin increase in future, on the difl'erence between the fixec 
exchange rate of 220 per cent and the average in question. Saic 
department, any day between the 25th and 28th of the respective 
month, shall inform the custom-houses, through the General Custom] 
House Bureau, of the rate adopted at which duties are to be settlec 
during the following month, said rate being published in the ' Diari( 
Oficial.' 

The rate of settlement for import duties adopted for each montl 
shall be applied to merchandise carried in ships anchoring in their ports 



TEAVELTNG AGENTS. 291 

of destination, or brought in over the frontiers after 12 o'clock on the 
nig-ht of the last day of the previous month and before the same hour 
of the last day of the current month, even though in either case the 
adjustment of clearance formalities be effected at a date subsequent 
to the last day of the month during which the rate of settlement was 
in force. Goods imported through the mails will be subject to the 
rate for the settlement of duties in force on the day of their arrival 
in the country. 

The stamp tax payable by alcoholic beverages and foreign cards 
at the time of their importation, as well as the additional duty for the 
benefit of the municipalities of the towns where the custom-houses are 
situated, is estimated on the basis of the import duties calculated 
according to the foregoing rules. The fines provided by the General 
Custom-House Regulations to punish infringements of the ordinances 
are computed in the same manner when such penalties are based on a 
percentage of the import duties. 

Merchandise imported for consumption in the Free Zone, with the 
exception provided by article 676 of the General Custom-House Regu- 
lations, shall pay only 10 per cent of the duties estimated as before 
stated, but the tax for the benefit of the municipalities, as well as the 
stamp tax payable by alcoholic beverages and foreign cards imported 
for use in said zone, is estimated and paid on the basis of the full 
duties. 

Merchandise imported for the Free Zone and similar merchandise 
produced in that region and forwarded farther inland, according to the 
provisions of Section IV, Chapter XXII, of the General Custom- 
House Regulations, pay duties at the rate of liquidation in force at 
the date when permission for forwarding the goods is solicited, and 
from the total of said duties the 10 per cent above mentioned will be 
deducted, even though the merchandise may have been imported at 
any prior date. Duties on foreign goods shipped from point to point 
in the zone are estimated in the same manner, either to collect them 
according to law, or to impose the penalties provided for infringements 
of the law, as the case may be. 

Another important decree went into effect on November 1, 1902, 
amending articles 468 and 169 of the General Customs Tariff, provid- 
ing that the importation of small quantities of foreign merchandise 
intended for consumption in the frontier towns, and coming from 
places bordering on the Republic may be made through the passes or 
fords indicated by the custom-houses for international trafiic, without 
the necessity of presenting a consular invoice or any other document, 
provided that the value of said merchandise shall not exceed |10. 

Commercial travelers. — According to a special consular report issued 
by the Department of Commerce and Labor of the United States, trav- 
eling agents in Mexico who confine their activity to the City of Mexico, 



292 MEXICO. 

or the .surrounding Federal District, are free of all taxes. In the 
interior the tax imposed varies in accordance with the number of com- 
modities handled by the agent. After the payment of this tax the 
agent is free to conduct business with merchants, as well as with pri- 
vate individuals. Samples possessing a value are subject to the reg- 
ular duty, I)ut when a declaration is made by the agent, in importing 
them, to the effect that it is his intention to reexport them within a 
certain time, the duty is refunded if such reexportation is made within 
the declared time. 

FREE ZONE. 

The Mexican Free Zone, according to an official description fur- 
nished by the Mexican authorities,^ is as follows: 

"There is understood by the term 'Free Zone' a strip of national 
territory which, covering all the northern frontier of the Republic in 
the States of Tamaulipas, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora, and the Ter- 
ritory of Lower California, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific 
Ocean, extends in a latitudinal direction 20 kilometers (12.42 miles) 
from the frontier border toward the interior. 

"It was established in the beginning from Matamoros to Monterey, 
Laredo (to-day Laredo of Tamaulipas) by Col. Ramon Guerra, gov- 
ernor of the State of Tamaulipas, by means of a decree dated the 17th 
of March, 1858, which was sanctioned by President Juarez the 30th 
of July, 1861. 

"The tariff of the 1st of Januar}^, 1872, left it in existence, and the 
tariff of 1885 caused its extension to all the frontier. The general 
ordinance of custom-houses of 1887, as well as that of 1891, which is 
now in force, preserved it, although with modifiications of importance,! 
especially as regards collection of duties. 

' ' The franchise granted the Free Zone consisted, in the beginning, 
in not levying any duty upon imported articles; afterwards, however, 
some small duties, purely local, were established, and the ordinance of 
1887 established as a fixed basis 3 per cent on the value of the duties 
according to tariff — a basis which was raised to 10 per cent by the 
ordinance of 1891. By subsequent decrees the duties were raised l^ 
per cent for the municipality and 7 per cent for stamps for internal 
revenue, the result of all this being that the merchandise introduced 
into the Free Zone from abroad now paid 18i per cent upon the 
importation duties according to tariff. 

"For the better comprehension of this explanation, there is here 
given an example of the duties paid by a certain article, according to 
its destination, either to the interior of the country or to the Free Zone. 

"Let us suppose a bale of cotton weighs 100 kilograms (220.46 

« Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance of the United States, No. 12, serieS| 
1898-99, Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department, 1899, p. "3182. 



FREE ZONE. 



293 



Dounds). If destined for the interior of the country, it will pay duties 
IS follows: 



Description. 



00 kilograms (220.46 pounds), at 7 cents (3 cents). 

per cent for harbor works 

i per cent (municipal) 

per cent (revenue stamps) 



Total. 



Mexican 
currency. 



87.00 
.14 
.10 
.49 



7.73 



United 

States 

currency. 



a 13. 10 
.06 
.04 
.22 



3.42 



I a The reductions in this report are made on the basis of the valuation of the Mexican dollar given 
\pril 1, 1898, by the Director of the United States Mint— i. e., $1 Mexican=44.4 cents. 

"If that bale is destined to the Free Zone, it must pay — 



Description. 



Mexican 
currency. 



10 per cent on 87 

U per cent on 87 (municipal). 
7 per cent on 87 (stamps) 



Total. 



Duties. 



1.29 



United 

States 

currency. 



3.30 
.05 
.32 



"If this same bale, after having been imported to the Free Zone, is 
shipped to the interior of the country, it must pay, in addition to the 
above — 



Description. 



Mexican 
currency. 



Duties. 



United 

States 

currency. 



90 per cent on |7 (83.10) 

2 per cent for harbor works 

Total 



86,30 
.14 



2.79 
.06 



2.86 



which is equal to the amount charged for importation of the bale 
directly to the interior (17.73 =$3.42). 

" It must be noticed that not all the merchandise that enters through 
the custom-houses of the north is destined for the Free Zone, and 
that much that is primarily imported for consumption there is after- 
wards shipped to the interior. 

"The greater part of the merchandise that enters through Laredo, 
Tamaulipas, Porfirio Diaz (Eagle Pass), city of Juarez (El Paso, Tex.), 
and Nogales, Sonora, pays at once the entire duties and is forwarded 
immediately to the interior. 

"The custom-house of Matamoros has little importation, and those 
of Guerrero, Camargo, Mier, Boquillas, Lasabe, Tiguana, and La 
Morita have practically none. 



294 MEXICO. 

"The greater part of the goods imported by these last is consumed 
by the inhabitants of the towns named and their jurisdictions, and all 
are United States goods, such as hams, potatoes, lard, butter, beer, 
matches, coarse cloth material, etc, 

"The principal cities found in the Free Zone are Matamoros, 
Camargo, Mier, Guerrero, Laredo City, Porfirio Diaz (Piedras 
Negras), City of Juarez (Paso del Norte), and Nogales. The others 
are small towns which have little commercial importance. The total 
population of the Free Zone could hardly be estimated to be 80,000 
or 100,000 people. 

" In the Free Zone there are no industries worth mentioning, nor is 
it possible to establish any, for the general ordinance of the custom- 
house permits the introduction to the interior of the country of indus- 
trial products manufactured in the Free Zone only on payment of the 
regular duties, which are equal to those levied on foreign goods of 
the same kind. Exportation to the United States of America would 
be difficult on account of its protective tariff, and the consumption in 
the Free Zone would not be sufficient to sustain industrial establish- 
ments of any importance, especially as not a single railroad exists, 
and transportation of merchandise is carried on in certain parts over 
difficult roads by means of the rudimentary system of ox carts." 



CHAPTER XII. 

riNANCIAIi ORGANIZATION— PUBLIC DEBT— BUDGET. 

The financial question in Mexico has been one of the most perplex- 
ing problems that ever presented itself to the statesman's mind. From 
the moment the country emerged from its centuries of colonial rule it 
was confronted with the gravest economic difficulties. The tributary 
system, based upon monopoly and exclusive privileges, which had 
prevailed before the separation from Spain, could not be continued 
under the conditions obtaining among an emancipated and autonomic 
people. Without any previous experience, they were compelled to 
change, improvise, and try new systems. The many revolutions and 
consequent changes in the administrations served but to add to the 
perplexity of the situation, and it has required a high order of ability 
to bring the finances of the country to their present condition. 

In 1823 the Mexican Government issued paper money, with results 
so deplorable that no administration has since ventured to repeat the 
experiment. The many difficulties which have beset the other Ameri- 
can Republics through depreciated paper money have thus been avoided 
by Mexico. 

REVENUES. 

The revenues of the Republic are divided into four groups or classes, 
which in 1901-2 yielded as follows:* 

/. Foreign-commerce taxes. * 

Import duties $26, 391, 048. 78 

Export duties 864, 021. 12 

2 per cent for port improvements 523, 085. 84 

Special port taxes 519, 521. 86 

Sailing licenses 928. 00 

Pilots' and harbor masters' dues 16, 698. 94 

Health office receipts 82, 267. 50 

Consular dues 334, 607. 62~ 

Consular and diplomatic certificates abroad 355. 00 

Total 28, 732, 534. 66 

« Boletin de Estadistica Fiscal, ano fiscal de 1901-2, No. 240. 

295 



296 



MEXICO. 

II. Interior Federal taxes. 



Stamp tax $26,936,788.41 

Embracing — 

Regular stamps $9, 956, 698. 93 

Federal tax 7,092,060.38 

7 per cent on imports 2, 012, 364. 40 

Miningtax 1,275,714.02 

3 per cent on gold and silver 2, 466, 809. 10 

Manufactured tobacco 1, 603, 088. 09 

Spirits 864,722.83 

Cotton yarn and fabrics 1, 578, 788. 65 

Miscellaneous, fines, etc - 86,542.01 

Mintage dues and charges 1, 435, 467. 18 

Patent and trade-mark dues 33, 480. 00 



Total 28,405,735.59 

III. Interior, district and territorial taxes. 

Direct taxes on real estate, professions, license tax, flour, and pulque. . $3, 23S, 904. 17 

Successions and donations 178, 950. 58 

Other taxes 422. 21 



Total 3,413,276.96 

IV. Public service and other sources. 

Postal service 12,367,957.22 

Telegraph service 1, 203, 710. 55 

Lottery,- fines, etc -- 2,023,833.74 

Total 5,595,501.51 

These figures show a grand total of $66,147,048.72 for the period 
under consideration. 

A summary of the revenues of the Republic from 1897-98 to 1901-2 
gives the following figures: 



Group. 


1897-98. 


1898-99. 


1899-1900. 


1900-1901. 


1901-2. 


First 


%2Z, 284, 989. 17 

22, 925, 702. 31 

2, 794, 458. 41 

3,692,834.66 


$28, 738, 480. 45 

24, 595, 434. 64 

2,958,555.01 

3,846,742.74 


S29, 945, 793. 04 

26,201,406.14 

3,280,630.91 

4,833,246.30 


$28,434,366.13 

26, 452, 781. 83 

3,281,976.02 

4, 829, 680. 65 


128, 732, 534. 66 


Second 

Third . ... 


28, 405, 735. 59 
3,413,276.96 


Fourth 


5,595,501.51 


Total 


52, 697, 984. 55 


60,139,212.84 


64,261,076.39 


62,998,804.63 


66, 147, 048. 72 







The financial condition of the country in 1902-3 is shown in the 
following extracts from the report of the Secretary of Finance for 
Mexico to the Federal Congress, under date December 14, 1903: 

"The revenue account shows the following receipts from normal 
sources: 

In cash |76, 023, 416. 11| 

In public debt securities 575, 277. 96,j 

In nominal receipts 21, 904. 91| 

Total normal revenue 76, 620, 598. 98 j 



EEVENUES. 



297 



"The expenditure in cash under ordinary budget appropriations 
I amounted, during the year 1902-3, to 168,222,522.20. 

"A comparison between revenue and expenditure in cash on normal 
I accounts shows the following results: 

Revenue from normal sources $76, 023, 416. 11 

Expenditure for normal purposes 68, 222, 522. 20 

Excess 7,800,893.91 



Extraordinary receipts in cash « 1, 212. 00 

Nominal receipts & 4,686,301.95 

Total 4,687,513.95 

"The following figures refer only to ordinary revenue and expendi- 
ture in cash, and also show the percentages which the annual surpluses 
bear to the ordinary expenditures of the several years: 



Fiscal year. 


Ordinary 

revenue in 

cash. 


Ordinary ex- 
penditure in 
cash. 


Excess of 
revenue. 


Percent- 
age. 


1895-96 


850, 521, 470. 42 
51, 500, 628. 75 
52,697,984.55 
60, 139, 212. 84 
64, 261, 076. 39 
62, 998, 804. 63 
66, 147, 048. 72 
76, 023, 416. 11 


845, 070, 123. 13 
48,330,505.25 
51, 815, 285. 66 
53,499,541.94 
57,944,687.85 
59, 423, 005. 75 
63,081,513.73 
68,222,522.20 


15,451,347.29 
3,170,123.50 
882, 698. 89 
6, 639, 670. 90 
6,316,388.54 
3, 675, 798. 88 
3, 065, 534. 99 
7,800,893.91 


12.11 


1896-97 


6.25 


1897-98 


1.70 


1898-99 


12.41 


1899-1900 ... . 


10.90 


1900-1901 


6.02 


1901-2 


4.86 


1902-3 


11.43 







"The increase in ordinary receipts as compared with the previous 
year was $9,876,367.39, a substantial gain which no other year has 
equaled. "The ordinary expenditures increased only by $6,141,008.47. 

"The following table shows the comparison of estimates with ordi- 
nary receipts collected in 1902-3: 





Estimates of 
the Department 

of Finance 
accepted by the 
Budget Com- 
mittee. 


Collections ef- 
fected. 


Difference be- 
tween estimates 
and collections. 


Taxes on foreign commerce 


129,228,200.00 
27,019,000.00 

3,443,000.00 
5, 133, 400. 00 


834, 784, 080. 55 
31, 508, 038. 42 

3,616,224.69 
6, 115, 072. 45 


+ 85,555,880.55 
+ 4,489,038.42 

+ 173, 224. 69 
-+- 981 672 45 


Interior taxes paid throughout the Federation . 
Interior taxes paid in the Federal district and 
Territories 


Public services and minor sources 






Total 


64, 823, 600. 00 


76,023,416.11 


+ 11,199,816.11 





"Among the sources* of revenue of which the yield greatly surpassed 
the estimates are import duties, common stamps, stamps of the Federal 
tax, taxes on mining property, and on the precious metals. The reve- 

« Payments made by persons who, on receiving from the treasury 5 per cent bonds 
without being entitled to the full coupon, have advanced money for the matured 
interest in order to receive said coupon. 

^ Receipts taken from the treasury reserves and included in the revenue account, 
as provided by various laws which appropriated a part of said reserves to certain 
works of public utility. 



298 



MEXICO. 



nue referred to is that collected in cash and from normal budget sources 
during- the last five years, which was as follows: 





1898-99. . 


1899-1900. 


1900-1901. 


1901-2. 


1902-3. 


Taxes on foreign commerce. 

Interior taxes paid through- 
out the Federation 

Interior taxes paid in the 
Federal district and Ter- 


828,738,480.45 
24, 595, 434. 64 

2,958,5.55.01 
3, 846, 742. 74 


$29, 945, 793. 04 
26,201,406.14 

3, 280, 630. 91 
4,833,246.30 


128, 434, 366. 13 
26,452,781.83 

3,281,976.02 
4,829,680.65 


128,732,534.66 
28,405,735.59 

3,413,276.96 
5,595,501.51 


$34,784,080.55 
31,508,038.42 

3,616,224.69 


Public services and minor 
sources 


6,115,072.45 






Total 


60, 139, 212. 84 


64,261,076.39 


62, 988, 804. 63 


66,147,048.72 


76,023,416.11 







INCREASE IN 1902-3 AS COMPARED WITH 1901-2. 

Taxes on foreign commerce $6, 051, 545. 89 

Interior taxes paid throughout the Federation. 3, 102, 302. 83 

Interior taxes paid in the Federal district and Territories 202, 947. 73 

Public services and minor sources - 519, 570. 94 

Total 9, 876, 367. 39 

'''' Custom-house revenue. — The revenue from this source is derived 
from import and export duties and the various forms of port and sani- 
tary dues. On the other hand, the expenses of the service include 
those' of the staff of the general custom-house bureau and of the fiscal 
gendarmerie. 

"The proportion of expenses to collections has been as follows: 



Fiscal j'ear. 


Collections. 


Expenses. 


Percent- 
age. 


1894 95 


$19,681,679.32 
23,433,088.36 
23,403,893.16 
23,047,021.72 
28, 459, 897. 05 
29, 635, 297. 68 
28,104,627.26 
28,397,572.04 
34,435,901.55 


$1,803,476.08 
1,823,286.27 
1,876,330.17 
1,941,421.20 
1,958,732.91 
1,981,800.84 
2,058,401.30 
2,130,446.47 
2, 192, 085. 08 


9.163 


1895 96 


7.780 


1896 97 


8.017 


1897 98 


8.423 


1898 99 


6.880 


1899 1900 


6.689 


1900 1901 


7.324 


1901 2 


7.502 


1902 3 


6.358 







''''The stamjj tax. — For the computation of the cost of collection of 
this source of revenue all the amounts collected by the stamp offices, 
including the general administration, are taken into consideration. 

"The comparative table since 1894-95 is as follows: 



Fiscal year. 


Collectibns. 


Expenses. 


Percent- 
age. 


1894-95. . 


$15,553,989.50 
18, 066, 480. 46 
19, 948, 271. 29 
21,621,246.13 
23, 215, 698. 77 
24, 849, 618. 78 
25, 149, 6,50. 73 
26,961,933.28 
29, 750, 265. 83 


$1,233,119.74 
1,317,375.13 
1,316,230.79 
1,403,536.49 
1,470,656.75 
1,479, .570. 57 
1,469,976.02 
1,551,194.24 
1,645,179.92 


7.93 


1895-96 


7.29 


1896 97 


6.60 


1897-98 


6.49 


1898 99 


6.33 


1899 1900 


5.95 


1900-1901 


5.84 


1901-2 


5.75 


1902-3 


5.52 







"The percentage of the cost of collection of this form of revenue 
has steadily decreased, owing to the fact that the yield of the tax has 



)l 



EXFENDITUEES. 



299 



constantly increased. The increase in expenditure was more than com- 
pensated by the increase in collections. 

^^ Bevemtefrom direct taxation. — The cost of collection of this branch 
of revenue is estimated on the basis of the total collections of the 
direct taxation office not only for the Federation but for each of the 
municipalities of the Federal District. 



Fiscal year. 


Collections. 


Expenses. 


Percent- 
age. 


- 
1896 97 


13, 378, 545. 98 
3,534,324.96 
3,743,314.53 
3,991,118.37 
4, 165, 963. 53 
4,396,829.91 
4, 595, 591. 95 


8168,664.38 
172, 770. 68 
173,887.03 
175, 388. 76 
178, 507. 08 
188, 035. 45 
192, 444. 11 


4.992 


1897 98 


4.888 


f 1898 99 


4.645 


f 1899 1900 


4.395 


1 1900 1901 


4.285 


i' 1901 2 


4.277 


1902 3 


4.187 







EXPENDITURES. 

The expenditures for 1901-2 were as follows: 

Legislative power $1,191,149.42 

Executive power 159, 165. 99 

Judicial power 503, 549. 81 

Department of Foreign Kelations 1, 019, 080. 34 

Department of Government 4, 909, 918. 72 

Department of Justice and Public Instruction 3, 134, 159. 13 

Department of Promotion, Colonization, and Industry 968, 788. 64 

Department of Communications and Public Works 9, 366, 331. 45 

Department of Treasury and Public Credit 27, 603, 622. 05 

Department of War and Navy 14, 325, 748. 18 

Total 63, 081 , 513. 73 

This was the amount actually disbursed during the fiscal year in 
question, as there remained at the Treasury an unpaid balance of 
$229,741.47 for claims uncollected at the close of the fiscal year. The 
balance remaining to the credit of the Government at the end of 
1901-2 was, therefore, as follows: 

Revenues, as stated $66, 147, 048. 72 

Net expenditures 62, 851, 772. 26 



Balance 3, 295, 276. 46 

Taking as a basis the year 1894-95, which was the first to show a 
surplus after the financial crisis of 1891, the following figures show, 
in round numbers, the state of the Treasury up to and including the 
vear 1901-2: 



Year. 


Receipts. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Surplus. 


1894-95 


843, 946, 000 
50, 521, 000 
50,501,000 
52, 698, 000 
60, 139, 000 
64,261,000 
63, 000, 000 
66,000,000 


841,372,000 
45, 070, 000 
48, 330, 000 
51,815,000 
53, 499, 000 
58,310,000 
59,400,000 
63,000,000 


82, 573, 000 


1895-96 


5, 454, 000 


1896-97 


3, 170, 000 


1897-98 


883, 000 


1898-99 


6, 640, 000 


1899-1900 


5,951,000 


1900-1901 


4, 400, 000 


1901-2 


3, 000, 000 







300 



MEXICO. 



For the year 1902-3 the expenditures were, according to the report 
above mentioned, as follows: 

"The following tables for 1898-1903 show the increase in the total 
expenditure of each year as compared with the year immediately pre- 
ceding, and the percentage of the disbursements effected on account 
of each division of the budget, as compared with the total disburse- 
ments for the year: 





1898-99. 


Percent- 
age. 


1899-1900. 


Percent- 
age. 


1900-1901. 


Percent- 
age. 


Legislature 


S972, 435. 73 

74, 249. 42 

433,985.51 

498, 245. 38 

3,618,487.83 

2, 450, 065. 58 

736,512.68 

6, 079, 205. 44 

6, 392, 784. 39 
20, 058, 538. 65 

12,185,031.48 


1.818 
.138 
.812 

.933 

6.763 

4.579 

1.376 

11. 363 

11. 949 
37. 493 

22. 776 


$972, 631. 25 

74, 137. 65 

443, 774. 01 

530,857.17 

3,916,299.23 

2,880,056.76 

1,155,276.94 

6,737,069.92 

6, 586, 140. 32 
21, 612, 126. 05 

13,401,964.38 


1.668 
.127 
.760 

.911 

6.716 

4.939 

1.982 

11.553 

11.295 
37. 065 

22. 984 


$981,210.72 
122,004.28 
496, 792. 38 

899,937.13 

4,437,550.98 

2, 897, 693. 46 

1, 103, 866. 14 

7, 944, 490. 32 

6,601,315.30 
20, 165, 142. 59 

13,773,002.45 


1.651 


Executive 


207 


Judiciary 


.836 


Department of Foreign 
Relations 

Department of the Inte- 
rior 


1.614 
7.468 


Department of Justice 
and Public Instruction . 

Departmentof Promotion, 
Colonization, and In- 
dustry 


4.876 
1.867 


Department of Commu- 
nications and Public 
Works 


13. 370 


Department of Finance 
and Public Credit: 
Administrative serv- 


11. 109 


Public debt 


33. 935 


Department of War and 
Navv 


23. 177 






Total 


53,499,541.94 




58, 309, 933. 68 




59,423,005.75 












Increase in total of dis- 
bursements effected as 
compared with year im- 
mediately preceding 




3.269 




8. 9914 




1.908 













Percent- 



1902-3. 



Percent- 



Legislature 

Executive 

Judiciary _ 

Department of Foreign Relations 

Department of the Interior 

Department of Justice and Public Instruction 

Department of Promotion, Colonization, and In- 
dustry 

Department of Communications and Public 
Works 

Department of Finance and Public Credit: 

Administrative services 

Public debt . . . . : 

Department of War and Navy 



11,091,149.42 

159, 165. 99 

503, 549. 81 

1, 019, 080. 34 

4,909,918.72 

3, 134, 159. 13 

968, 788. 64 

9, 366, 331. 45 

7, 036, 665. 13 
20, 566, 956. 92 
14,325,748.18 



1.730 
.252 
.798 

1.615 

7.784 
4.968 

1.536 



11.155 
32. 604 
22. 710 



11,103,911.23 

278, 288. 01 

401,392.83 

860, 175. 45 

5, 014, 208. 67 

3, 883, 979. 32 

1, 063, 636. 06 

8, 814, 423. 45 

7, 520, 241. 95 
24,289,865.98 
14, 992, 499. 25 



1.618 
.409 
.586 
1.262 
7.336 
5.696 

1.556 



11.029 
35. 606 
21. 979 



Total. 



63,081,513.73 



68, 222, 522. 20 



Increase in total of disbursements effected as 
compared with year immediately preceding 



7.535 



"In the 3^ ear under review the budget voted by the Chamber of 
Deputies amounted to $65,429,880.64; but this appropriation was 
increased during the course of the fiscal year to 17,499,207.31, b}^ 
virtue of certain provisions contained in the budget itself. 

'"'' Holdings in cash. — At the termination of the fiscal year ending 
June 30, 1903, the Federal Government had in its vaults and in the 
hands of its agents or correspondents in cash the sum of $30,917,018.35. 



I 



J 



PUBLIC DEBT. 301 

"This sum compared with the holdings at the beginning of the fiscal 
year in question — on June 30, 1902 — show the following increase: 

Holdings in cash at the end of 1901-2 (gold and silver, not reckoning 
the premium on the gold) |30, 635, 422. 82 

Holdings in cash at the end of 1902-3 (gold and silver, not reckoning 
the premium on the gold) 30, 917, 018. 35 

Increase - 281, 595. 53 

"The holdings were divided between gold and silver dollars as 
follows: 





Held on June 30— 




1902. 


1903. 




$4,401,539.97 
26,233,882.85 


$2, 708, 785. 67 




28, 208, 232. 68 




Total . 


30, 635, 422. 82 


30,917,018.35 





"In the course of the fiscal year 1902-3 the holdings in gold 
decreased by $1,692,764.30, and the holdings in silver increased by 
11,974,349.83. 

"balance of debtor and creditor accounts. 

Total assets $69, 480, 554. 60 

Total liabilities, the public debt excepted 25, 232, 943. 89 



Difference in favor of the nation 44,247, 610. 71 

PUBLIC DEBT. 

The public debt of Mexico is represented by bonds of differing rates 
of interest and payable in gold or silver, according to designation. 

According to Komero,^' the history of the Mexican foreign debt begins 
in 1825, very soon after the independence of the country was estab- 
lished, when two loans were contracted in London, both for £10,000,000, 
the interest on which, owing to the disturbed conditions prevailing in 
the Republic, was not promptly paid, the bonds consequently falling 
to a low nominal price. In 1851, after the war with the United States, 
that debt was refunded into a new bond issue, the interest on which 
was reduced from 5 to 3 per cent. The internal affairs of the country 
not permitting the payment of the interest on these bonds, in 1888 a 
new adjustment was made, by which gold-bearing bonds at 6 per cent 
were issued, the interest on which has since been paid promptl}^, the 
bonds reaching par. 

From 1849 to 1856 bonds were issued to pay claims of English, 
French, and Spanish subjects, under certain conventions, and such 
bonds were subsequentl}?^ exchanged at differing rates for the 6 per cent 
gold bonds of the foreign debt, 

« "Mexico and the United States," New York, 1898, p. 129. 



302 MEXICO. 

In 1888 another loan was negotiated in London for £3,000,000, at 5 
per cent, for the construction of the Tehuantepec Railroad. The sub- 
sidies granted to railway companies were payable in silver with a per- 
centage of the import duties, but as they amounted to a considerable 
sum and were a heavy drain on the national treasury, the Government, 
in 1890, contracted another loan in London, on a gold basis, at 6 per 
cent interest, to be applied to the subsidies due most of the railway 
companies up to that date. 

In 1850 a domestic or interior debt was contracted, covered by bonds 
bearing interest payable in silver at 3 and 5 per cent. There was, 
besides, other indebtedness of various kinds, growing out of loans and 
other obligations entered into at a time when the Government revenues 
were not sufficient for its expenditures. All these debts have been 
consolidated into new bonds, bearing interest at 3 and 5 per cent, pay- 
able in silver, and the railway subsidies remaining unpaid from the 
proceeds of the loan of 1890 have been met by bonds at 5 per cent, 
both interest and principal being paid in silver. 

Romero '^ states that "it is very onerous to Mexico, when it is on a 
silver basis, to pay in gold the interest of its foreign debt, because we 
have to buy gold at current prices, and it costs us now double its cur- 
rent price. When silver was about 50 cents on the dollar, as compared 
with gold, 6 per cent interest of our foreign debt cost us 12 per cent, 
and of course the further silver is depreciated the greater will be the 
cost of paying the interest of our gold debt." President Diaz gives, 
in his report of November 30, 1896, the following data about the cost 
to the Mexican treasury of buying ervchange to place in London the 
funds to pay the gold interest on the foreign debt: 

Fiscal year: 

1898-99 $729, 178. 17 

1890-91 2, 314, 477. 77 

1891-92 3,225,246.77 

1892-93 5, 101, 223. 57 

The total amount of the Mexican debt on the 30th of June, 1896, 

was $203,225,067.34, as follows: 

Sterling Mexican debt |114, 675, 895. 49 

Payable in silver 88, 549, 111. 80 

In 1896-97 a third division of the debt was introduced under the 
name of Floating Debt,^^ and which, at the close of the fiscal year named, 
stood as follows: 

Debt payable in foreign coin at the rate of $5 per pound sterling $108, 865, 528. 00 

Bonded debt payable in silver 91, 951, 573. 21 

Floating debt 1, 473, 696. 70 

Total 202,290,797.91 

«Opuscit., p. 130. 

& The floating debt consists of credits and other certificates not presented for con- 
version, uncollected interest and unpaid balances of previous estimates. 



PUBLIC DEBT. 303 

At the end of the fiscal years 1897-98, and 1898-99, the public debt, 
including uncollected interests, stood as follows: 



Foreign debt (gold) .. 
Mexican debt (silver) 
Floating debt 



Total. 



$109, 509, 544. 00 

103, 997, 703. 23 

1,401,808.63 



214, 809, 055. 86 



1898-99. 



1108, 945, 084. 00 

114, 542, 647. 93 

953, 619. 21 



224,441,361.14 



At the end of the fiscal year 1901-2 the debt stood as follows: 

Foreign debt (gold) $113,513,980.50 

Mexican debt (silver) •. 147,097,930.57 

^ Floating debt - 1,342,403.50 

Total 261,954,314.57 

The floating debt is a noninterest-bearing debt, while the Mexican 
bonded and the foreign debt are interest bearing. The debt proper — 
that is, not including the uncollected interest — for 1901-2 amounts to 
j 1259,409,153.50, as follows: 

Foreign debt - , $112,053,800.00 

i Mexican bonded 146, 012, 350. 00 

Floating debt 1,342,403.50 

The debt payable in foreign gold is represented by the value it 
would attain should the foreign rate of exchange be at par, the sup- 
posed value of $5 per pound sterling being the most approximate 
valuation. The floating debt is made up of credits which the parties 
interested have not collected or converted into other bonds according 
to the laws governing the public debt. The Federal treasury has not 
among its floating debt a single "short-time" bond, either interest 
bearing or not, issued since July, 1894, in payment of any claims. 
As to the uncollected or unclaimed interest on either the gold or silver 
debt, the respective amounts are deposited in the banks and banking 
houses in charge of said debts, those of the silver debt being placed in 
the National Bank, and those of the gold bonds of 1888, 1890, and 
1893 with the firm of S. Bleichroeder, of Berlin. 

In June, 1899, negotiations were entered into, conducted by the 
Secretary of the Treasury in person, having for their object the con- 
version of the foreign gold debt, which culminated in the signing of a 
contract in Berlin, whereby J. P. Morgan & Co., of New York, J. S. 
Morgan & Co., of London, S. Bleichroeder, the Deutsche Bank, and 
the Dresden Bank of Berlin undertook the conversion of the entire 
foreign debt of the Republic of Mexico, viz: Six per cent loans of 
1888, 1890, and 1893, and the 5 per cent Tehuantepec loan, heretofore 
issued in London and Berlin, into a 5 per cent consolidated external 
gold loan due within forty-five j^ears at par by semiannual drawings, 
which may be increased after the year 1909, the first one to take place 



304 MEXICO. 

in June, 1900, or b}^ purchase in the market if same can be made under 
par. Principal and interest of the bonds payable in gold in Germany, 
London, Amsterdam, Berlin, or New York, in the last city at the rate 
of fftt.So per pound sterling. Bonds to be issued in denominations of 
from £20 to iJl,000, at the option of the subscriber. The bonds are 
secured b}^ a special hypothecation of 62 per cent of the import and 
export duties of the Republic of Mexico. The annual interest and 
sinking-fund requirement for the entire external debt of Mexico, as 
consolidated, is about $6,200,000 gold, the total amount of the issue 
being £22,700,000, of which £6,000,000 are reserved for allotment in 
the United States and in Holland. 

Commenting upon this operation "El Mundo,"*^ a Mexican journal, 
says: 

"The Mexican Government, with 6 per cent gold securities, quoted 
at 102 and 103, and 5 per cent silver at 99 and 99^^, has succeeded in 
placing, on the best markets of Europe, a 5 per cent loan, over one- 
half of it (£13,000,000) at 96 flat and the balance at 9Yi. According 
to this arrangement the Mexican Government will receive: 

For the £13,000,000, at 96 £12,480,000 

For the £9,700,000, at 97^ optional 9,423,250 



Total 21,913,250 

Less 1 per cent commission on £22,7a0,000 227,000 



Balance 21,686,250 

" This, being estimated at the rate of $5 gold per pound sterling, is 
equivalent to $108,431,250 gold, but as our debt, including the mort- 
gage loan on the Isthmus Railroad, amounts at present to $10Y,286,100 
gold, there will be a surplus of $1,145,150 gold, to meet the necessary 
expenses connected with the loan and the further necessities of the 
Treasury." 

On the 5th of July, 1899, President Diaz issued a decree for the 
conversion of the Mexican public gold debt, in accordance with the 
terms of the contract signed at Berlin, from the 1st of September 
following. 

The report of the Secretary of Finance before mentioned gives thf 
following information in regard to the condition of the public debt o; 
Mexico in 1902-3: 

" General status of the public debt. — The public debt of the nation 9k 
the close of the fiscal year 1902-3 consisted of the following securities 
and amounts: 

« "Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos — Sus progresos en veinte aiios de paz — 1877- 
1897"— -E. de Zayas Enriquez— New York, p. 252. 



REDEMPTIOlSr DEBT. 



805 



Principal. 



Uncollected 
interest. 



Total. 



Debt payable in foreign coin at $5 per £1. 



ionds of the 1888 loan , 

Jonds of the 1890 loan , 

Sonds of the 1893 loan , 

Jonds of the 5 per cent loan of 1899 , 

{'•rovisional certificates of the 5 per cent loan of 1899., 
tlortgage bonds of the Tehuantepec National Railway . 

Total 



S23, 200. 00 

2, 700. 00 

1,100.00 

111,281,800.00 



12, 439. 00 

898. 50 

237. 00 

1,455,405.00 

23.75 



5, 200. 00 



$25, 639. 00 

3, 598. 50 

1,337.00 

112,737,205.00 

23.75 

5, 200. 00 



111,314,000.00 



1,459,003.25 



112,773,003.25 



Debt payable in silver coin. 

Bonds of the 3 per cent consolidated debt 

Bonds of the 5 per cent interior redeemable debt; 

First series 

Second series 

Third series 

Fourth series 

Provisional certificates of the 5 percent interior re- 

[ deemable debt, fifth series 

Bonds of the Veracruz port works 

[Bonds of the Monterey and Mexican Railway 

i Subvention bond of the Oaxaca main line 

; Veracruz and Pacific Railway bonds 



48, 476, 975. 00 

19, 595, 700. 00 
19, 525, 700. 00 
19, 712, 900. 00 
19, 839, 800. 00 

16, 842, 500. 00 

25. 00 

2, 000. 00 

9, 260, 000. 00 

5, 939, 500. 00 



858, 837. 45 

118, 062. 00 

127, 965. 00 

96, 270. 00 

107, 092. 50 

1,250.00 



240. 00 
'7,'i85.'66' 



49, 335, 812. 45 

19, 713, 762. 00 
19, 653, 665. 00 
19,809,170.00 
19, 946, 892. 60 

16, 843, 750. 00 

25.00 

2, 240. 00 

9, 260, 000. 00 

5, 946, 685. 00 



Total 



159, 195, 100. 00 



1,316,901.95 



160, 512, 001. 95 



Noninterest-bearing debt {floating debt) . 

Certificates of arrears from July 1, 1882, to June 30, 1894. 
j Uncollected balances of budgets prior to July 1, 1895, 
redeemable at so much per cent, according to de- 
cree of Oct. 31, 1895 

Uncollected balances that are payable in full in cash 
appertaini»g to the budgets of from 1896-97 to 
1902-3 

Sundry balances awaiting collection, according to 
the decrees for the arrangement of the public debt. 

Total 



143, 967. 25 

2, 785. 45 

969, 969. 84 
153, 110. 92 



1, 269, 833. 46 



RESUME. , 

Debt payable in foreign coin at the rate of $5 per pound sterling 1112, 773, 003. 25 

Debt payable in Mexican money, interest-bearing securities 160, 512, 001. 95 

Debt payable in Mexican money, uncollected balances and floating debt 1, 269, 833. 46 



Total of debt 274,554,838.66 

''' Redemption of the debt. — The following- table sets forth the amount 
of securities redeemed in each class of the public debt during the 3'-ear 
1902-3: 

Securities of the public debt that shoiv a decrease on June 30, 1903, as compared with the 

same date in 1902. 



, 


June 30, 1902. 


June 30, 1903. 


Decrease on 
June 30, 1903. 


Debt payable in foreign money at $5 per £1 [principal). 
Bonds of the 1888 loan 


$29,400.00 

4, 800. 00 

112,012,500.00 

6, 000. 00 


$23, 200. 00 

2,700.00 

111,281,800.00 

5, 200. 00 


$6, 200. 00 


Bonds of the 1890 loan 


2, 100. 00 


Five per cents, 1899 .' 


730, 700. 00 


Mortgage bonds of the Tehuantepec National Rail- 
way 


800. 00 






Total 


112, 052, 700. 00 


111,312,900.00 


739. 800. 00 






Securities of the debt, payable in silver (principal). 
Bonds of the 3 per cent consolidated debt 


48, 972, 425. 00 

19,653,000.00 
19, 590, 800. 00 
19,772,100.00 
19, 898, 000. 00 
3, 000. 00 


48,476,975.00 

19, 595, 700. 00 
19, 525, 700. 00 
19, 712, 900. 00 
19,839,800.00 
2, 000. 00 


495,450.00 


Bonds of the 5 per cent interior redeemable debt: 
First series 


57, 300. 00 


Second series 


65, 100. 00 


Third series 


59, 200. 00 


Fourth series 


58, 200. 00 


Bonds of the Monterey and Mexican Gulf Railway. . . 


1,000.00 


Total 


127, 889, 325. 00 


127,153,075.00 


736, 250. 00 







806 



MEXICO. 



Securities of tlie public debt that shoiv a decrease o» June 30, 1903, as compared with the 
same date in 1902 — Continued. 





June 30, 1902. 


June 30, 1903. 


Decrease on 
June 30, 1903. 


Nonintcrcst-bcaring debt (floating debt). 
Certificates of arrears, claims not presented for con- 


11,342,403.60 


11,269,833.46 


172, 570 04 






Total 


1,342,403.50 


1,269,833.46 


72, 570. 04 







RESUME. 



Debt payable in foreign money 

Debt payable in silver money 

Debt not bearing interest (floating debt) . 

Total 



1739,800.00 

736,250.00 

72, 570. 04 



1,539,620.04 



'^ The total amount of the debt redeemed in 1902-3 was $1,539,620.04, 
against $1,269,260, which was the amount redeemed in the preceding 
3^ear. 

"In the noninterest-bearing floating debt there has been a decrease 
of $72,570.01, owing to the redemption of certificates of arrears. 

^''Increase of the debt. — The following table shows the classes of the 
debt that increased and the amount of such increase, as compared with 
the preceding year: 



Securities of the debt payable in silver (principal). 


June 30, 1902. 


June 30, 1903. 


Increase in 
1903. 


Provisional certificates of bonds of the 5 per cent inte- 
rior redeemable debt fifth series 


15,294,100 
3,569,500 


$16,842,500 
5,939,500 


$11,548,400 
2,370,000 


Veracruz and Pacific Railwav bonds 




Total 


8, 863, 600 


22,782,000 


13,918,400 





"The increase in the debt, as in the given previous year, occurred 
in the following classes of securities only: 

"Fifth series of bonds of the 5 per cent redeemable debt, and bonds 
of the Veracruz and Pacific Railway. The amount of both classes of 
securities issued during the year under review is considerable, par- 
ticularly the amount of certificates of the fifth series of the 5 per cent 
redeemable debt, and both have entered into circulation b}^ virtue of 
the respective contracts." 

BUDGET.'^ 

1903-4.. — The budget for the fiscal 5^ear commencing eluly 1, 1903, 
and terminating June 30, 1901, as approved by the House of Deputies, 
amounts to $71,838,268.77 Mexican silver, distributed as follows: 

Legislative : U, 155, 801. 20 

Executive : 267, 300. 86 

Judicial _.,. 450, 803. 40 

Foreign Relations 782, 576. 75 

«See tables on pages 412-413, Chapter XIX. 



BUDGET. 



307 



Department of Interior: 

Personnel and expenses of the department §3, 173, 549. 70 

Political and municipal government of the Federal District 5, 731, 203. 55 

Political and municipal government of the Federal territories - . . 357, 143. 10 

Department of Justice 968, 969. 70 

Assistant Secretary of Public Instruction 3, 123, 598. 03 

Department of Public Works. 1, l-i5, 718. 30 

Department of Communications 9, 743, 723. 83 

Treasury : 

Administration 7, 681, 740. 65 

.-] Public debt - --'- 24,542,543.99 

I Department of War 15,713,595.71 

Total 74,838,268.77 

190Jt.-5.^On December 1-4, 1903, the Mexican Secretary of the Treas- 
ury presented to the Federal Congress the budget for the fiscal year 
lUOJr-S, from which the following data are collected: 

"The forecast of the revenue which will be collected in the coming 

fiscal 3^ear, and a minute examination of the expenses of all the services 

I of the public administration during the same period of time, afford a 

■ 1 basis for the presentation of the budget bill for the year in question, 

j subject to the following showing: 

I I Estimate of normal revenue - $79, 965, 000. 00 

\ { Expenditure proposed - 79, 862, 157. 39 

j Excess of revenue over expenditure 102, 842. 61 

"The recapitulation of the estimates of revenue during the fiscal 
year 1904-5 shows the following results: 

Taxes on foreign commerce. 

Import duties $31,350,000 

Export duties 862, 000 

Sundry port dues 650, 000 

Guard and storage dues 44, 000 

Pilotage dues 19,000 

Sanitary dues 88, 000 

Consular fees -- 364,000 

Other minor taxes on foreign commerce - 1, 000 

Total taxes on foreign commerce 33, 378, 000 

Interior taxes x>o-y<^M6 throughout the Federation. 
Stamp revenues: 

Sales of common stamps _ $12, 000, 000 

Federal contribution - 7, 050, 000 

Taxes on mining property -. 1, 840, 000 

Three per cent on gold and silver 2, 980, 000 

Tax on tobacco 2, 555, 000 

Tax on alcohol 1, 250, 000 

Tax on cotton, yarn, and cloth .- 1, 840, 000 

Trade-mark and patent due? 35, 000 

Sundry income under the stamp law 90, 000 

Total yield of the stamp revenue 29,640,000 



308 



MEXICO. 



Other Federal internal taxes: 

Taxes on coinage, assay, smelting, separation, and refinement. 



Total interior taxes payable throughout the Federation 

Taxes payable in the Federal District and territories. 

Direct taxes on real estate, business licenses, professional tax, taxes on 

flour and pulque, and in general all local taxes and receipts 

Successions and donations - 

Public registry of property - 

Total special taxes of the Federal District and territories 

Public services. 
Earnings of post-office 



Earnings of telegraph office 

Earnings of certain Government establishments 



$1, 860, 000 
31, 500, 000 



m, 359, 000 

200, 000 

50, 000 

8, 609, 000 



$2, 980, 000 

1, 555, 000 

38, 000 



Total revenue from public services 4, 573, 000 

Proceeds from the Nation^ s real estate. 

From sundry operations therein $140, 000 

Profits and minor sources. 

National lottery 1360,000 

Minor sources 1, 405, 000 



Total lottery and minor sources 1, 765, 000 

RESUME. 

First group 133,378,000 

Second group 31,500,000 

Third group 8,609,000 

Fourth group 4, 573, 000 

Fifth group 140,000 

Sixth group... 1,765,000 

Total estimated revenue for 1904-5 79, 965, 000 

Departmental appropriations for 1904-5 1 79, 862, 157 

"A comparison between the departmental appropriations of the 
budget for 1903-i and those of the proposed budget for 1904—5 shows 
the following differences: 



Department. 



Budget for 
1903-4. 



Budget for 
1904-5. 



Legislature 

Executive 

Judiciary 

Department of Foreign Relations 

Department of the Interior 

Department of Justice 

Public Instruction 

Department of Fomento 

Department of Communications and Public Works 
Department of Finance and Public Credit: 

Administrative services 

Public debt 

Department of War and Navy 



155, 801. 20 
267, 300. 86 
449, 803. 40 
783, 489. 25 
261,774.35 
968, 969. 70 
135, 598. 43 

145. 718. 30 
743, 723. 83 

681, 740. 65 
542, 543. 99 

713. 596. 31 



81. 155. 801. 20 
282, 341. 11 
450, 423. 90 
773, 034. 14 

11. 112. 816. 98 
1,183,595.35 
3, 520, 050. 56 
1, 536, 105. 65 

10. 089. 605. 21 

7, 834, 138, 45 

25. 235. 043. 99 
16, 689, 200. 85 



Total 74,850,060.27 



79, 862, 157. 39 



CHAPTER XIII. 

MINTS, CURIIENCY, BANKS, BANKING LAWS— COBPORATIONS. 

Since the enactment of the law of June 6, 1887, the production of 
gold and silver has greatly increased in the Republic, and it is due to 
this law that the latter metal has attained its present enormous output. 
The main objects of the law in reference were: The reduction of the 
cost of metal production; to relieve the mining industry as much as 
possible of the onerous taxes and obstacles which retarded its free 
development; to lower the cost of the principal raw materials required 
in the industry, and also to attract capital. Further legislation on 
June 6, 1892, gave a new impetus to mine production, the output of 
silver from 1886 to 1891 being valued at 1199,208,204, while from 1891 
to 1896 it aggregated $267,122,418. By the law of June 4, 1894, the 
executive was authorized to grant concessions under certain condi- 
tions to those engaged in the exploitation of gold mines, this industry 
having increased its production from $920,702 in 1890-91 to $4,744,- 
542 in 1894-95, and to $6,054,078 in 1895-96. This calculation is made 
on the basis of $20 silver per ounce of gold, which is the standard 
used in the Mexican statistical tables. It is claimed that these figures 
do not cover the true production of the gold districts, as almost all 
the exports of this metal are shipped clandestinely.^ 

Mints were established in Mexico in 1537, the custom being some- 
times followed of renting them to private individuals, who collected a 
mintage charge of nearly 4i per cent upon the amount of bullion 
coined. Until within eight years ago there were thirteen mints in the 
Republic, bat as increased facilities of transportation have reduced the 
difficulties attendant upon the carriage of the bullion from mine to 
mint, this number has been decreased to three, one being in the City 
of Mexico, one in Zacatecas, and one in Culiacan. Besides these mints 
there are Federal Assay Ofiices situated at Aguascalientes, Alamos, 
Chihuahua, Durango, El Paso (Texas), Guadalajara, Guanajuato, Her- 
mosillo, Monterey, Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Tezuitlan, and Zacatecas. 

«"Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, etc.," Eafael de Zayas Enriquez, New York, 
p. 20. 

309 



310 



MEXICO. 



Coinage.'^ — From colonial times to June 30, 1902, the total coinage 
of the Republic is represented by the following figures: 



From— 


Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 


Total. 


1537 to 1821 


$68,778,411.00 
59, 868, 273. 50 


S2, 082, 260, 657. 44 
1,387,675,274.28 


8542, 893. 37 
6, 685, 894. 36 


82,151,581,961 81 


1822 to 1902 


1,454,129,442.14 






Total 


128, 646, 684. 60 


3,469,936,931.72 


7,128,787.73 


3,605,711,403 95 







During the presidency of Gen. Manuel Gonzalez nickel to the value 
of 11,000,000 was coined, but this was subsequently withdrawn from 
circulation. From December 1899 to June 30, 1902, bronze was 
coined to the value of $65,150, thus bringing the total coinage to 
$1,458,194,572.14, giving a yearly average of $9,876,269.64 since 
1537. 

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, money was coined to 
the value of 127,200,534, as compared with a coinage of $25,315,332 
during the fiscal year 1901-2, or an increase of $1,885,202 in 1902-3. 
The coinage during the fiscal year 1902-3 was as follows: 

Silver $26,438,350 

Gold 713,146 

Copper 49, 038 

According to statistics for the fiscal year 1902-3, silver coin was 
exported to the value of $21,098,339, and gold coin valued at $106,598, 
showing that of the coinage of the year referred to there remained in 
the country in circulation $5,340,011 in silver coins and $606,548 in 
gold coin. 

The receipts of precious metals at the mints and Federal assay ofiices 
in 1901-2 were as follows: 





Gold. 


Silver. 


Total : 




Kilos. 


Value. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


value. 


Mints 


4,875 
4,690 


$3,292,645 
3, 100, 200 


566,016 
890,904 


$22, 749, 397 
36,461,355 


$26, 042, 042 




39, 551, 655 






Total 


9,465 


6, 392, 845 


1,446,920 


59, 200, 752 


65, 593, 597 







I 



The disposition of these metals was as follows: 





For coin- 
age. 


For ex- 
port. 


Total ' 
value. 


Gold 


$765,862 
27, 961, 766 


$5, 626, 982 
31,238,986 


$6, 392, 845 


Silver 


59, 200, 752 






Total 


28,727,628 


36, 865, 968 


65, 693, 597 





i 



Exports of specie. — In a report to the Mexican Monetary Commis-«| 
sion the following information is found with regard to the annual 

« See table on page 417, Chapter XIX. 




TAXES. 311 

export of silver dollars from the Eepubiic, which is stated to be one of 
the most interesting phenomena in international currency problems. 

"The average annual exportation of silver dollars is estimated at 
$15,000,000, though in 1902 it rose to $17,621,700. Out of the said 
amount barely 10 per cent of the pesos exported to London are melted 
down, while the balance of the London shipments and all those sent to 
the United States are reexported to India, the Straits Settlements, and 
the Chinese Empire. The pesos which reach India are melted down, 
whereas in other oriental countries to which the}^ are shipped Mexi- 
can dollars are used as currency, though British dollars also circulate 
in the Straits Settlements and American dollars in the Philippines. 

"In regard to the volume of the demand for Mexican dollars in the 
Far East in former times and the present demand for same, it is stated 
that the Spanish dollar coined in Mexico during the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries and the Spanish dollar and Mexican dollar in the 
nineteenth century was, par excellence, the dollar of commerce, 
because it served as the money of almost all the nations of eastern 
Asia and even of the British possessions in North America, the Span- 
ish West Indies, and other countries; and it was also the money of the 
United States at the time of the declaration of their independence. 
During the second half of the nineteenth century its use as money has 
graduallj^ been reduced, and at the present time it circulates on\j in 
the Straits Settlements, in the Malay States, the Philippine Islands, 
and the Chinese Empire, all of them countries of the Far East of Asia. 
It will soon cease to circulate as legal money in the first three coun- 
tries,^ and while it will continue to be used as a trade dollar in the 
Straits Settlements and in the federated Malay States, it will retain 
its role as money in the Chinese Empire only. " 

Taxes. — Under date March 27, 1897, the President issued a decree 
(No. 42) whereby gold and silver are subject to the following taxation: 

(1) Interior stamp tax at the rate of 3 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

(2) Mintage dues at the rate of 2 per cent on the value of said 
metals. 

(3) Assay dues, in conformity with the tariff that the Department 
of the Treasur}?- may promulgate. 

(4) Smelting, refining, and other dues as they may be decreed by 
the Treasury Department. 

A subsequent decree, November 26, 1902, provides that on and after 
the 1st day of January, 1903, the assessment of the 3 per cent stamp 
tax and the 2 per cent coinage tax provided for by the law of March 27, 
1897, shall be made, in so far as gold is concerned, according to the 

« Since January 1, 1904, the Mexican dollar has ceased to circulate in the Philip- 
pines, being superseded by the "Conant" dollar, worth 50 cents American gold. 



312 MEXICO. 

commercial value of said metal expressed in silver, which value shall 
be determined in accordance with the provisions of the following 
article: 

"Aet. 2. The commercial value of gold expressed in silver shall be 
fixed each month, taking as a basis the value of $675,416 that the 
monetar}^ law assigns to a kilogram of gold, which value shall be 
reduced to silver dollars according to the average rate of exchange 
on New York during the first twenty-five days of the previous month." 

The Department of Finance, on any of the da3^s between the 25th 
and 28th of each month, shall notify the directors of the mints and 
the custom-house collectors said rate of exchange, so that it may be 
used in the liquidation of the dues on the precious metals presented 
for coinage or exportation from the first to the last day of the follow- 
ing month. The commercial value of the kilogram of gold, in silver 
coin, on which to base the estimates during the month of March, 1901, 
the 3 per cent for the stamp tax and the 2 per cent for the coinage 
tax in conformity with the decree of November 26, 1902, was fixed at 
11,460.32. 

The stamp and mintage dues as well as the assay dues will always 
be paid, whether the pieces are to be coined or whether the metals or 
substances are to be exported. The smelting dues are to be collected 
upon such pieces that, not being- homogeneous, must be smelted in 
order to assay them and estimate upon their value. The refining and 
other dues apply only to pieces to be coined. Foreign coins are 
exempted from the provisions of section 1, above mentioned, and will 
onlj^ be subject to the paj^ment of coinage dues, as provided in sections 
3 and 4, above mentioned, when they are introduced into the mints to 
be coined. 

OTJRRENCY. 

The present monetarj^ system of Mexico is regulated by the law of 
November 28, 1867,^' which introduced the decimal monetary system 
in the countr3^ The preamble of this law states its object to be to 
establish a uniform sj^^stem of currenc}^ without making any essential 
modifications in the value of the monetary unit, which shall remain 
the silver dollar (peso). This dollar is to weigh 27.073281 grams, and 
be of a fineness of 0.902 plus (0.777 of 0.001). The weight of this dol- 
lar is, expressed in grains troy, 417.79. The amount of pure silver in 
the dollar is 377.139 grains tro}^. The variation allowed at the mints 
in the weight is 750 grains either way for each $1,000, and the 
maximum for each dollar is li grains. 

« Leyes y disposiciones relativas d la Moneda Nacional — 1821-1899 — Secretaria de 
Estado y del Despacho de Hacienda y Cr^dito Publico — Mexico — 1900. 



SPECIE. 



313 



The weights of all the silver coins are given below: 



Silver coins. 



Weight in 
grams. 



Equivalent 
in grains. 



fl 

50-centavo 
25-centavo 
10-centavo 
5-centavo . 



27. 073281 
13. 536 

6.768 

2.707 

1.352 



417. 79 

208. 90 

104.45 

41.77 

20. 865 



I a By a law passed in December, 1897, thie mints commenced, in January, 1898, to coin a new peso 
i and a 20-centavo piece. The peso is of the same weight and fineness, but bears different inscriptions 
' from those on the old S-real peso. A bronze centavo was created by decree of December 21, 1899, con- 
taining 95 parts of copper, 4 parts of tin, and 1 part of zinc. 



The fineness of gold coins is 0.8T5. 
are given in the following table: 



The denominations and weights 



Gold coins. 


Weight. 


120 


Gh'ams. 
33. 841 


810 


16. 920 


$5 


8.460 


82.50 - 


4.230 


$1 




1.692 







The ratio is 16 to 1. 

Specie.^'' — The first monetary census of Mexico, made in 1903, shows 
the following figures: 





Gold. 


Silver. 


Copper. 




Specie. 


Pesos. 


Fractional 
coin. 


Total. 


In the banks 


$173, 512 

250, 578 

5,929 

52,866 


$48,295,726 

6, 707, 917 

2, 443, 793 

697, 686 


11,677,283.10 

860, 839. 50 

354,487.70 

79,200.30 


12,428.59 

36,758.88 

18, 709. 29 

3,793.88 


150, 148, 949. 69 
7,856,093.38 
2,822,918.99 


In the trade 


In the public treasuries 

Private parties 






Total 


482,885 


58, 145, 122 


2, 971, 810. 60 


61,690.64 


61,661,508.24 





In his report to the Federal Congress relative to the financial situ- 
ation of Mexico during the fiscal year 1901-02, the Secretary of the 
Treasury made the following statements: 

The amount of specie held in the various banks of the country dur- 
ing the year in reference, was: 



Date. 


Banks of the 
capital. 


State banks. 


Total. 


1901. 
July 


$43,345,808.12 
43, 860, 996. 68 
41,494,876.47 
39, 656, 535. 44 
38,351,931.10 
36,902,382.54 

37,798,926.39 
38,326,160.42 
38, 395, 875. 43 
39, 682, 396. 04 
41, 062, 694. 76 
43,520,749.33 


$15,383,589.73 
16, 033, 210. 59 
16,225,377.56 
16, 224, 866. 80 
16, 456, 892. 45 
16,996,500.49 

17, 184, 936. 58 
17,978,057.59 
18, 375, 728. 63 
18,625,472.58 
18, 968, 060. 85 
19, 399, 385. 99 


$58,729,397.85 
59, 894, 207. 27 
57, 720, 254. 03 
55.881,402.24 
54,808,823.55 
53, 898, 882. 96 

54.983,862.99 
56,304,218.01 
56, 771, 604. 06 
58, 307, 868. 62 
60,030,755.61 
62, 920, 135. 32 


August 


September 


October 


November 


December 


1902. 
January 


February 


March 


April 


May 


June 





a See table on page 416, Chapter XIX. 



314 MEXICO. 

In the preceding fiscal year, 1900-1901, the minimum holding of 
specie was 816.155,002 in the month of January, 1901; in the tiscal 
year 1901-2 the minimum was $53,898,000 in December, 1901, as is 
shown in the foregoing- statement; the maximum holding in the former 
year was 858,:220,000 in June, 1901, and in the latter year the maximum 
was §62,920,000 in June, 1902. 

The note circulation advanced from 863,778,000 to 877,167,000; bills 
discounted rose from 891.865.000 to §108.791,000, and loans on collat- 
erals and mortgages increased in equal proportion. The capital stock 
of the banks rose from 878,300,000 to 883,300,000, and the unpaid part 
of this capital was 85,010,000 in June, 1901, and 81,850,000 in June, 
1902. The reserve funds were increased by §2,090,000, and the emer- 
gency funds by 8138,000. 

BAXES. 

At the end of the calendar year 1902 there were in the Republic M 
banks of issue, 2 mortgage banks. 1 '" refaccionarios," or loan banks, 
and 1 trust company. The paper of the banks of issue is not legal 
tender, it being covered by large deposits of coin. The Government 
issues no paper money, and as a rule does not retain any specie in 
the Treasury vaults, the National Bank, which acts as depository, 
paying all warrants, etc. 

On June 30, 1902, the leading banking institutions of the country 
held in cash" §69,528,371.32, while the amount of bills in circulation 
was §77,166,988.25, the authorized capital of these institutions, 
including the Trust Company, being §85,300,000 and the unsubscribed 
capital 85.850,000. The general condition of these institutions on the 
date in reference is shown as follows: 

Assets. 

Unsubscribed capital $5, 850, 000. GO 

Cash 69,528,374.32 

Bills receivable 108,794,411.70 

Loans on personal property 42, 862, 303. 00 

Hypothecary loans 12, 057, 685. 06 

Loans on real estate 4, 005, 664. 22 

Public funds held by the banks 5, 571, 865. 27 

Cun-ent debtor accounts 67, 513, 817. 18 

Furniture and fixtures 2,546,022.56 

Total 318,730,143.31 

Liabilities. 

Authorized capital $85, 300, 000. 00 

Bills in circulation 77, 466, 988. 25 

Mortgage and other bonds in circulation 12, 734, 300. 00 

Sight deposits 7,460,105.62 

Other deposits 7, 421, 535. 61 

« By order of the Treasur}^ Department, 1897, banks were forbidden to count as 
cash on hand notes of their own or other banks, so that the term "cash on hand" 
represents actual specie. 



BANKS OF ISSUE. 



315 



Current credit accounts - - - fill, 975, 877. 77 

eservefund - - 12,480,293.19 

•urplusfund -- 3,891,042.87 

Total 318,730,134.31 

New hanJis. — During- the year 1902 six new banks were organized 
under the charters issued in accordance with the general banking law 
|3f March 19, 189T, by the Secretary of the Treasury, with an aggregate 
jcapital of $3,300,000, namely: 

'Banco de Chiapas 1500,000 

■Banco de Aguascalientes - - 600, 000 

Banco de Tamaulipas - - 1, 000, 000 

Banco de Refaccionario de Chihuahua - 200, 000 

;Banco de Oaxaca - - ■ 500, 000 

JBanco de Hidalgo 500,000 

These additions raised the number of chartered banks to 30 at the 
end of the j^ear 1902. 

Five banks during 1902 increased the capital with which they were 
organized under the original charters, the increase being made with 
the approval of the Treasury Department and forming an aggregate 
of $4,750,000, as follows: 

Banco Yucateco ---- $1,500,000 

Banco de Jalisco - - 1, 500, 000 

Banco Mercantil de YucatSn 1, 000, 000 

Banco de Nuevo Leon 500, 000 

Banco de Guanajuato 250, 000 

Banks of issue. — The following table shows the banks of issue of the 
Republic on December 31, 1902, their capital, unsubscribed capital, 
cash on hand, and bills in circulation, as given in the "Anuario Esta- 
di&*tico," for 1903: 



Banks. 



Authorized 
capital. 



Unsub- 
scribed 
capital. 



Cash on hand. 



Bills in 
circulation. 



Banco Nacional de MtSxico 

Banco de Londres y MtSxico . . . 
Banco Minero de Chihuahua . . 

Banco Yucateco 

Banco Mercantil de Yucatdn . . 

Banco de Durango 

Banco de Zacatecas 

Banco de Nuevo Leon 

Banco del Estado de MtSxico. . . 

Banco de Coahuila 

Banco de San Luis Potosi 

Banco de Sonora 

Banco Occidental de M6xico . . 
Banco ISlercantil de Veracruz . 

Banco de Jalisco 

Banco Mercantil de Monterrey 
Banco Oriental de Mexico....". 

Banco de Guanajuato 

Banco de Tabasco 

Banco de Chiapas 

Banco de Hidalgo 

Banco de Tamaulipas 

Banco de Aguascalientes 

Banco de Oaxaca 

Total 



S20, 000, 000 

15, 000, 000 

6, 000, 000 

6, 000, 000 

4, 000, 000 

1,000,000 

1, 000, 000 

2, 000, 000 

1, 500, 000 

1, 600, 000 

1,100,000 

1, 000, 000 

1, 500, 000 

2, 000, 000 

1, 500, 000 

2, 500, 000 

3, 000, 000 

750, 000 

1,000,000 

500, 000 

500, 000 

1,000,000 

600, 000 

500, 000 



$500, 000 

'i,"566,"66o' 
""466,' 665' 



227, 550 
250, 000 



500, 000 



300, 000 
245, 000 
156, 770 
500, 000 
300, 000 
250, 000 



$18, 921, 

10, 689, 

2, 474, 

4,770, 

2, 139, 

486, 

580, 

889, 

1, 082, 

804, 

1,329, 

1, 305, 

668, 

1, 721, 

1,217, 

681, 

2, 115, 

858, 

4l6, 

152, 

198, 

531, 

304, 

320, 



752. 62 
767. 08 
716. 79 

383. 06 
827. 30 
145. 04 
864. 24 

237. 10 
443. 79 
092. 58 
907. 60 
901. 83 
957. 44 
323. 94 
968. 71 
518. 76 
075. 62 
770. 85 
806. 54 

703. 07 
107. 44 
210. 91 

534. 11 
983. 40 



$28, 348, 819 

18, 814, 940 

3, 259, 786 

7, 994, 869 

2,311,582 

790, 300 

910, 061 

2, 243, 915 

1, 858, 175 

1,580,185 

2, 397, 745 

2, 157, 225 

1,142,525 

2, 801, 565 

1,981,820 

1, 156, 955 

3,191,020 

1, 474, 915 

679, 870 

270, 620 

208, 415 

365, 520 

204, 400 



74, 550, 000 



5, 129, 320 



54,663,029.82 



86,145,227 



316 MEXICO. 

Moi'tgage hanks. — The mortgage banks of Mexico on the same date 
were the "Banco Internacional el Hipotecario de Mexico," with an 
authorized capital of $5,000,000 and unsubscribed capital of $1,500,000, 
having bonds in circulation to the amount of $9,851,200, and the 
"Banco Agricola Hipotecario de Mexico," with an authorized capital 
of $2,000,000. 

Loan hanks. — The loan banks {Bancos Refaccionarios) were the fol 
lowmg: "Banco Central Mexicano," capital $7,000,000; "Banco 
Refaccionario de Campeche," capital, $300,000; "Banco Refaccionario 
de Michoacan," capital $300,000; and " Banco Comercial Refaccionario 
de Chihuahua," with an authorized capital of $200,000. 

Trust companies. — "Almacenes Generales de Deposit© de Mexico 
y Veracruz;" capital, $2,000,000. 

Banking operations. — The status of banking and currency opera- 
tions within the Republic on December 31, 1902, as compared with the 
corresponding date of the previous year, was as follows: 

The aggregate capital of the banks on December 31, 1901, was 
$80,300,000, and on December 31, 1902, $89,350,000, an increase of 
$9,050,000 for the year. The aggregate cash holdings on Demember 
31, 1901, were, in specie, $53,898,882; in paper, $5,616,634; total, 
$59,515,246; December 31, 1902, in specie, $53,008,722; in paper, 
$4,512,278; total", $57,521,000. The specie in 1902 was $890,160 less 
than in 1901, and the bank notes in 1902 were $1,104,086 less than in 

1901. The aggregate of bank notes in circulation December 31, 1901, 
was $71,257,626; December 31, 1902, $86,145,225, an increase of 
$14,887,599. 

The aggregate of loans on collaterals December 31, 1901, was 
$38,782,327; December 31, 1902, $49,908,018, an increase of $11,125,- 
691. The aggregate of the -loans on mortgages December 31, 1901, 
was $15,186,985; December 31, 1902, $11,735,107, an increase of 
$2,548,122. The aggregate reserves December 31, 1901, was $14,239,- 
293; December 31, 1902, $16,772,855, an increase of $2,533,562. The 
debtor accounts in December, 1901, were $63,365,009; in December, 

1902, they were $82,598,859, an increase of $19,233,850. The creditor 
accounts in December, 1901, were $98,422,621; in December, 1902, 
they were $133,274,090, an increase of $34,854,469. 

Principal hanks. — The three principal banks of the Republic are: 
The National Bank of Mexico, a stock company, with branch offices 
at Chihuahua, Durango, Guadalajara (Jalisco), Guanajuato, Mazatlan 
(Sinaloa), Merida (Yucatan), Montere}^ (Nuevo Leon), Oaxaca, Puebla, 
San Luis Potosi, San Juan Bautista (Tabasco), Tampico (Tamaulipas), 
Veracruz, and Zacatecas; the International and Mortgage Bank, a 
limited stock compan}^, having a board of directors in the Cit}" of 
Mexico and another in New York, and the London and Mexico Bank, 
also a stock company, with branch offices in Guadalajara, Guanajuato, 



AMERICAN CAPITAL. 817 

erdo, Mazatlan, Monterej^, Morelia, Puebla, Queretaro, San Luis 
otosi, and Veracruz. 

The Bank of London and Mexico commenced its operations in the 

epublic under the name of the Bank of London, Mexico, and South 
lAmerica, without a Federal concession. This was not necessary 
according to the law then in force. When, in 1884, owing to the com- 
merrcial code, it became necessarj' to obtain such a concession, that of 
the Employees' Bank was transferred to it with modifications. In 
1889 a new contract was executed, changing the name to the Bank of 
London and Mexico, and further modifying the contract of 1886. 

The Mexican National Bank was established in 1881, the contract 
being modified in 1884, when permission was granted to combine with 
the Mercantile Mexican Bank and change the name of the institution 
to National Bank of Mexico. 

The Mortgage Bank (Banco Hipotecario) was established by virtue 
of a concession bearing date of May 22, 1882, and modified in August, 
1888, when its name was changed to that it now bears (International 
and Mortgage Bank of Mexico) and its capital increased. 

The oldest banking- institution of Mexico is the Monte de Piedad 
(National Pawn Sliop), which was established in 1775, with a capital of 
$300,000, given by Don Pedro Romero de Terreros. Formerly it pos- 
sessed the authority to issue notes, but this authority has been revoked 
and all the notes redeemed. It is in reality a charit}^, the business of 
which amounts to over $1,000,000, distributed among 60,000 borrowers. 

The existing banks are prosperous and in a flourishing condition, 
but the demand for increased facilities are such that new banks are 
being established and the operations of the old ones increased and 
extended in various directions. 

The privileges of issuing bank notes or bills on demand in the Fed- 
eral District is confined to the Bank of London and Mexico and the 
National Bank. Though this privilege is also granted to the banks to 
be established in the States of the Republic, they will not be per- 
mitted officiall}^ to establish redemption agencies for their notes in the 
capital, and it will be a long time before the bills of the States' banks 
occupy the same position in the public confidence as those issued at the 
capital, though they are now circulating more freely. There are a 
great many private banking houses in the City of Mexico and else- 
where, which have a high standing and do an excellent business. 

American crtc/^^■^a^.— Consul General Barlow, in his report before 
quoted, states the following in regard to American investments in 
banking in Mexico: 

American capital is beginning to assume importance in the banking 
of Mexico, and this interest is one that is growing rapidly. Ameri- 
can methods, which were unknown here a few years ago, have revo- 
lutionized banking in this country and placed it on a business rather 



318 MEXICO. 

than a social basis. As yet the total amount of American capital 
invested in banking in this country — naturall}^ mainly in this city — is 
relatively small, but it is a powerful leaven in the loaf, and threatens 
to become the body of it in the next few years. American capital 
has recentl}'' acquired considerable interests in three of the leading 
banks of Mexico, namel}^, the London Bank, the Central Bank, and 
the International and Mortgage Bank. Two trust companies, * in 
which American capital is mainly interested, have recently started in 
this city. The two small American banks which are operating here 
have been thus far very successful, and others are now being started 
in various cities of the Republic where there are large American 
interests." 

Banking metliods — Bank failures are unknown in Mexico. The 
Government has an inspector attached to each bank, whose duty it is 
to exercise a strict supervision over the issuance of bank notes, and 
other operations of the notes being deyjendent upon his signature. 

LEGISLATION. 

The law providing for the establishment of banks, passed on June 3, 
1896, abo provides that the Executive of the Union is authorized to 
issue a General Law by which the concession, establishment, and opera- 
tions of banks of issue in the States of the Republic are to be gov- 
erned, subject to the following provisions: 

1. No concession shall be granted without the deposit by the con- 
cessionaries of bonds of the national public debt, whose nominal par 
value shall be at least equal to 20 per cent of the sum which the bank 
is to have in cash in order to begin operations. 

2. The minimum capital subscribed shall be 1500,000, of which at 
least half shall be paid in cash before the bank begins operations. 

3. The cash balance in each bank shall never be reduced to less than 
half the amount of its circulation notes and the amount of deposits 
payable on demand, or at three days' sight or less. 

4. No bank shall be authorized to issue circulation notes for a sum 
greater than three times the amount of its paid-up capital. 

5. The bank notes may be accepted as currency and shall not be of 
a lower denomination than $6. 

6. Exemptions or rebates from taxes shall only be allowed to the 
bank first established in any of the States or Federal Territories of 
the Republic. All other banks shall pay the taxes imposed by the 
general laws, and, furthermore, a special tax to the Federation of 2 
per cent per annum upon the amount of their paid-up capital. For 
the purposes of this section, first banks shall be considered such as are 
now established, provided they subject themselves to the provisions 
of the general law. 



BANKING LAW. 319 

Y. Banks established in a State shall not have beyond the same 
branch offices for the conversion of their notes, save b}^ special per- 
mission from the Executive, who will g-rant the same only when close 
business interests bind several States, but never for the establishment 
of said branch offices in the City of Mexico or in the Federal District. 

8. The Federal Executive shall have at the banks an interventor, 
whose duties shall be specified and who, at the revision of the annual 
balances, shall have the same authority granted b}^ law to the commis- 
saries of corporations. 

9. Banks shall publish a monthly balance sheet, which shall show, 
! besides the balances of accounts required b}^ law, the cash on hand, 
amount of bank notes in circulation, and amount of deposits payable 
on demand or at three days' sight or less. 

10. No concessions shallbe granted b}^ the Executive of the Union 
until after the promulgation of the general banking law and in con- 
formity with its provisions. 

The Executive is likewise authorized: 

1. To enter into agreements with the National Bank of Mexico, 
pursuant to which, and through such compensation as may be deemed 
equitable, all variances between the concession of said bank and the 
promulgation of the general law referred to in the foregoing article 
shall be removed. 

2. To enter into agreements with banks already existing pursuant 
to special concessions, provided that State banks, in order to enjoy the 
benefits of the general law, shall relinquish the concessions under which 
they were established. 

3. The authorit}^ granted the Executive by the present article to 
enter into agreements with the State banks shall cease six months after 
the publication of the general law, and that granted for other pur- 
poses shall terminate on the 15th of next September. 

The regulations which are to govern all other institutions of credit 
may be the subject of the said law or of other special laws that the 
Executive may issue as he may deem best. 

4. The Executive will report to Congress, with respect to his action 
under the authority conferred upon him by this law, at the session 
next following the publication of the decree or decrees in the premises. 

Pursuant to the authority in him vested bj^ this law, the President 
on March 19, 1897, promulgated the " General Law relating to institu- 
tions of credit." The main features of this law are as follows: 

For the purposes of the law the following only are considered as 
institutions of credit: Banks of issue, mortgage banks, and loan 
{refaccionarios) banks. 

Banks of issue are such as issue notea of a given value, payable at 
par, at sight, and to bearer. 



320 MEXICO. 

Mortgage banks are such as make loans secured by naortgage on 
urban or suburban real estate, and issue bonds secured in like manner 
bearing interest and payable under given circumstances at fixed dates. 

Loan banks (Bancos Refaccionarios) are such establishments as are 
intended to facilitate mining, agricultural, and industrial operations 
by means of privileged advances, unsecured, assuming liability for 
determinate operations, and issuing bonds promptly maturing, bearing 
interest, and payable on a day certain. 

Credit institutions can only be established under a special concession 
granted by the Executive in conformity with the requirements and 
conditions of this law and the act of June 3, 1896. 

Concessions for the establishment of institutions of credit may be 
granted to private individuals or corporations, but business operations 
under such concessions can only be conducted by corporations duly 
constituted in the Republic. 

Concessions to private parties shall be granted to three persons at 
least, who must prove, within the succeeding three months, the incor- 
poration of the association which is to operate under the concession 
and the assignment of the latter thereto. 

Corporations of this kind are governed by the commercial code 
whereinsoever it does not conflict with the following provisions:. 

1. The number of corporators shall be seven, at least. 

2. The corporate capital shall never be less than 500,000 pesos in 
the case of banks of issue and mortgage banks, nor less than 200,000 
in the case of loan banks. 

3. Express authority of the Department of the Treasury is necessary 
to increase or reduce the corporate capital. 

4. No incorporation may be efi'ected unless the corporate capital is 
fully subscribed and the 50 per cent thereof paj^able in cash paid in, 

5. The domicile of the corporation shall be the place in the Republic 
where the principal office is located. 

6. Certificates of shares may be in the names of individuals until 
their value shall be fully paid in. 

7. The reserve fund shall consist of 10 per cent of the net annual 
profits until it shall equal a third part or more of the aggregate cor- 
porate capital. 

In no case shall the duration of the concessions exceed thirty years, 
reckoned from the date of this law, for banks of issue, and fifty years 
for mortgage and loan banks. Foreign banking institutions issuing 
notes payable to bearer can not maintain branches or agencies in the 
Republic for the issue and payment of the same. 

The articles of incorporation and by-laws of all corporations referred 
to in this law shall be submitted for approval to the Department (rf 
the Treasury before the bank opens for business. 



BANKING LAW. 321 

Banks of issue maj^ be established and operate in the States and 
Territories subject only to the provisions of this law. Such banks in 
the Federal District will continue to be governed by existing contracts 
and provisions. 

Bank notes of the denominations of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 
pesos only shall be placed in circulation. 

The notes must express in Spanish the obligation to pay in cash at 
par, at sight, and to bearer the face value thereof. The date of issue, 
series, and number of the note, as well as the signatures of the Gov- 
ernment interventor, one of the directors, and of the manager or 
cashier of the same, must also appear. 

Bank notes bear no interest and are imprescriptible during the life 
of the institution. The obligation to pay shall lapse by limitation 
five years after the bank is declared in bankruptcy or it shall go into 
liquidation. 

Banks of issue are prohibited from — 

1. Making loans or discounting or negotiating securities when the 
date of maturity exceeds six months. 

2. Discounting promissorj^ notes or other commercial paper without 
two responsible indorsements at least, or without collateral securit3^ 

8. Making loans secured by mortgage, save in the cases mentioned 
below. 

1. Pledging or depositing their notes and contracting any obligations 
thereby. 

5. Mortgaging their property or pledging their discounted paper. 

Banks of issue may only accept security by way of mortgage when 
the credit of any of the responsible indorsers of discounted paper shall 
have suffered loss, and when the Department of the Treasury shall 
expressly authorize the same. 

No individual or corporation not authorized thereunto by the pro- 
visions of this law may issue any promissory note or paper containing 
a promise to pay in cash, to bearer, at sight. 

Mortgage banks may make loans secured by mortgage as follows: 

1. Short-time loans bearing simple interest, payable on a day certain. 

2. Long-time loans, reimbursable in annual payments to include 
interest, reduction on principal, and remuneration to the bank. 

Short-time loans are such as are payable in one or more instalknents, 
but always in less than ten years. 

With respect to loans reimbursable in annual payments, the number 
of such payments shall not be less than ten nor more than forty, should, 
the same be made in quarterly, semiannual, or annual installments. 

The bank's mortgage shouM always have priority, either because 
the real estate has no other mortgage attaching to it, or because, if 
previously mortgaged, preference be given the new loan through subro- 
509a— 04 21 



322 MEXICO. 

gation or pursuant to the express consent of the preferred creditors, 
or through any other means authorized b}^ hiw. 

Mortgage loans shall never exceed one-half the value of the property 
mortgaged, to be appraised b}^ experts named by the bank, unless an 
appraisement for taxation, made in due form of law exists, in which 
case the Department of the Treasur}^ may authorize banks to act upon 
such appraised valuation. 

Only such urban or suburban real estate as is situated within the 
States, Federal District, or Territories where the principal office or 
branch offices of the bank are located shall be the subject of mortgages. 

Property held under certain titles may not be mortgaged to secure 
loans. 

Banks can not make secured loans on mines, forests, temples, nor 
real estate specially devoted to some public service of the Federation, 
States, or municipalities. 

The aggregate amount of sums loaned and secured by mortgage 
shall at no time exceed twent}^ times the paid-up capital of the loaning 
bank, nor shall the sums loaned any individual or association exceed 
the one-fifth part of such capital. 

Monej^s due by debtors in payment of installments on the principal, 
or for interest, can not be withheld or in an}" way restrained by law or 
otherwise. 

The nominal value of the mortgage bonds these banks are authorized 
to issue shall never exceed the aggregate amount of secured loans. 

These bonds shall bear such interest as the board of directors of the 
banks ma}' determine. 

The bonds shall be of the denominations of 100, 500, and 1,000 pesos, 
respectivel}", and assignable by simple transfer if paj^able to bearer, or 
by indorsement if pa3^able to order. 

Mortgage bonds mnj be issued either without date of maturity oi; 
pa3^able on a da}^ certain. The former shall be taken up through 
drawings. 

There shall be two drawings at least in every year, and at each draw- 
ing there shall be taken up the number of bonds that may be neces- 
sary in order that the nominal value of those still in circulation shall in 
no case exceed the aggregate amount of the secured loans of the bank. 

Within eight da3^s after the drawings the numbers of the bonds 
drawn shall be published, as also the date upon which the}^ should be 
presented for payment. These bonds shall cease to bear interest from 
the date designated for their payment. 

The banks may provide for extra drawings should they see fit. 
Bonds so paid shall be canceled and destroyed. 

Mortgage banks shall keep on hand at all times a special guaranty 
fund in cash, which shall always be greater than the semiannual inter- 
est on the bonds in circulation. 



BANKING LAW. 323 

Besides making loans secured by mortgage and issuing bonds, mort- 
age banks are authorized to engage in the operations following: 

1. To invest in their own bonds and in other first-class securities. 

2. To make loans for not more than six months, secured by such 
ecurities as collateral. 

3. To receive deposits, paying, or not, interest thereon. 

■i. To draw, buy, sell, and discount bills of exchange, drafts, orders, 
)r checks, payable in the Republic or abroad at a date not to exceed 
six months. 

5. To sell, buy, or collect on commission, directh^ or through agents, 
ill kinds of securities. 

6. To loan, with proper security, the mortgage bonds deposited as 
security. 

7. To make loans or advances for public works or improvements, 
^entering into the necessary contracts for the purpose with the Federal, 

5tate, and municipal governments. 

Mining stock certificates are expressly excluded from the securities 
in which the banks are allowed to invest. 

Banks may receive deposits only to an amount not greater than five 
times the paid-up capital; and they are bound to keep on hand at all 
times in cash, gold or silver bullion, or immediatelj^ convertible 
securities, an amount equal to two-thirds, or more, of the aggregate 
deposits. 

Loans made to the Federal, State, and municipal governments must 
be secured by mortgage on real estate, lien on taxes specially levied, 
or by the securities issued to raise the funds necessary to execute the 
public works referred to. 

Mortgage banks are prohibited from issuing bank notes, or any 
other securitj!^ payable on demand to bearer. 

The concluding sections treat of the legal steps to be taken to fore- 
close mortgages, and exempt banks of this kind from furnishing the 
bonds required in legal proceedings. 

Loan banks are authorized to engage in the operations following: 

1. To make cash loans, pa3^able within two years, to mining, indus- 
trial, and agricultural enterprises. 

2. To pledge their responsibility in order to facilitate the discount- 
ing or negotiating of promissory notes or obligations maturing not 
later than six months after date. 

3. To issue bonds payable in coin, bearing interest and maturing in 
not less than three months nor more than two years after date. 

The law gives banks of this kind a first lien on all mines, products, 
crops, live stock, machinery, tools, agricultural implements, etc., which 
may be pledged to the payment of a loan. 

The value of the coin bonds issued by loan banks shall never exceed 



324 MEXICO. 

the amount on hand in cash or in bars of the precious metal, plus the 
value of immediately convertible securities held as bills collectible. 
These banks are prohibited: 

1. From issuing bank notes. 

2. From engaging in mortgage operations and from issuing mort- 
gage bonds. 

3. From working on their own account mines, reduction works, 
industrial establishments, or agricultural estates, and from entering 
into any open association, or as silent partners, with parties represent- 
ing such enterprises. 

Banking institutions are prohibited from acquiring real estate under 
anj'^ title whatsoever, other than that necessary for the establishment 
of their offices and dependencies, and such as may be adjudicated to or 
received by them in the collection of their debts or in the exercise of 
the rights incident to thje operations in which they engage. The real 
estate adjudicated and received as above must be conveyed away within 
three years, in the case of mortgage banks, and within two years in 
the case of loan and issue banks. At the expiration of such terms 
without any convej^ance, the Department of the Treasury shall order 
a public sale of the real estate. 

Banking institutions shall not buy their own stock nor engage in 
any operation requiring it for security. 

The consolidation of two or more banks can not be effected without 
the previous approval of the Department of the Treasury. 

Banking institutions must publish a monthly balance sheet showing 
at least the information following: 

Under assets: 

1. Uncalled capital. 

2. Cash on hand. 

3. Notes discounted. 

4. Loans on collateral. 

5. Loans on mortgage. 

6. Investments in public securities and immediately convertible 
paper. 

7. Accounts current, debtor. 

8. Real estate belonging to the bank. 
Under liabilities: 

1. Capital. 

2. Circulation. 

3. Deposits. 

4. Accounts current, creditor. 

5. Reserve and emergency funds. 

The Department of the Treasury shall publish a yearly statement 
of the condition of the banking institutions of the Republic. 
The last chapter of the law treats of franchises and taxes. It pro- 



USE OF woED "bank." 325 

vides that the capital of banking institutions, the shares representing 
the same, dividends paid to shareholders, and the several kinds of 
securities issued by them shall be exempt from every manner of taxa- 
tion, Federal, State, and municipal, save the real estate tax on the 
buildings occupied by them for office purposes and the stamp tax. 
There are, however, numerous exemptions from this latter burden. 

Since the publication of the foregoing law the Treasury Department 
has entered into a contract with each of the State banks formerly 
established, in which the banks waive the rights acquired under their 
original concessions and subject themselves to the requirements of the 
new law, thereby enjoying the privileges accorded to the first bank 
instituted in each State. Each of the banks has five years within 
which to call in its notes of a denomination less than 5 pesos. 

Use of the word '■^ hanky — On May 28, 1903, a Presidential decree 
was promulgated bearing on this subject, as follows: 

"Article 1. Only corporations legally constituted for the opera- 
tion of institutions of credit, by virtue of concessions granted by the 
Government, can use the name of 'bank' or its equivalent in any 
foreign tongue as part of their corporate titles or establishments. 

"Art. 2. The charter of any company, of which the word ' bank' or 
its translation into any foreign tongue forms part, can not be recorded 
in the commercial registry unless the articles of incorporation contain 
official documents proving the existence of a concession granted to 
said company by the Department of Finance and Public Credit, in 
accordance with the provisions of the general law on institutions of 
credit. 

"Art. 3. Notwithstanding the provisions of article 1 of this act, 
native or foreign corporations at present existing in the Republic and 
embodying in their corporate name the word 'bank,' or its translation 
into any foreign tongue, may continue to use the same name as hith- 
erto, by adding the words ' without concession ' every time they use 
their commercial title. 

"Art. 4. Foreign corporations having, or that may establish 
agencies or branch houses in the Republic in accordance with Mexican 
laws, shall be entitled to make use of the word 'bank.' 

"In order to enjoy this right, such foreign companies must previ- 
ously obtain a special permission from the Department of Finance and 
Public Credit. This permission will only be granted under such con- 
ditions as the Department may deem expedient, and when in its opin- 
ion it is proved that the parent house does a banking business in the 
country where it was founded, and no valid reasons exist for fearing 
that an improper use will be made of the franchise. 

"Art. 5. Within a year from the date of the present law, native or 
foreign corporations in the Republic using in their corporate name 
the word 'bank,' or its translation into any foreign tongue, must 



326 MEXICO. 

either change said name hj the suppression of such word, or make use 
of the right granted by articles 3 and 4 of this law. 

"Art. 6. Any action growing out of the violation of the provisions 
of this law, either by the improper use of the word ' bank,' or by 
failure to add the words 'without concession,' when they are required 
to be used, shall be brought ex officio by the prosecutor before the 
Federal courts, and shall be punished by a fine of the second class. 
If the offender is a company, its managers or administrators shall pay 
the penalty." 



CHAPTER XIV. 

MEANS OF COMMUNICATION— RAILROADS AND RAILROAD 
LAW— TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE LINES— POSTAL SERV- 
ICE—STEAMSHIP LINES. 

Notwithstanding earnest endeavors to foster railroad construction 
in Mexico, for many years the topographical conditions of the country 
rendered such enterprises both difficult and expensive. Means of 
communication were limited to a few wagon roads, over which twenty- 
four regular lines of diligences were operated under one management, 
supplemented by a few bridle paths, leading from the Central Plateau 
over the Sierras to points on the Pacific and Gulf coasts. 

RAILWAYS. 

In 1854 the first section (about 4 kilometers in length) of what after- 
wards became the Mexican Railway was finished, connecting the City 
of Mexico with Guadalupe, and, with another line about 19 kilometers 
long, between Veracruz and Tejeria, constituted the railways of the 
Republic until 1861. The French army, during the war of interven- 
tion in 1862, carried the Tejeria section as far as Paso del Macho, at 
the foot of the mountains, a distance of about 56 kilometers. About 
the same time an English syndicate, which had a concession from the 
Government to build a road from the capital to Veracruz, extended 
the Guadalupe road to Puebla, the entire line to Veracruz being com- 
pleted in 18T3. It is from this period that the era of railroad develop- 
ment in Mexico dates, new impetus being given to this branch of 
public service by the installation of General Diaz as President, in 
1876. From 1877 to 1882 Mexico built more miles of railroad than 
an}^ other Latin-American country, the average yearl}^ construction 
during that period being 689 kilometers.^' 

In his message to Congress, April 1, 1897, President Diaz, in refer- 
ring to the extent of railway development in the Republic, stated that 
in 1875 there were 578 kilometers 285 meters of road; in 1886, 5,915; 
in November, 1888, 7,940; in June, 1892, 10,233, or, including the 
tramways and other local private lines, 11,067 kilometers; in Septem- 

«Informe del C. General Porflrio Diaz, Presidente de los Estados Unidos Mexica- 
nos, A sus compatriotas, 1896. 

327 



328 



MEXICO. 



ber, 1894, 11,100, and in April, 1897, the total extent amounted to 
11,469 kilometers. The same document also gives the following 
figures in regard to traffic: 



Number of passengers . 
Freight handled (tons) 
Gross receipts 



1876. 



4,281,327 

132, 915 

82, 564, 870 



1890. 



19,531,395 

2, 734, 430 

121,019,960 



1893. 



22, 781, 343 

3, 798, 360 

$26,121,624 



1895. 



24,269,895 

4, 798, 360 

128,758,450 



It is also stated that the subsidies paid for railroads up to December, 
1892, averaged $8,935 per kilometer built and in operation at that date, 
and up to June 30, 1896, the total amount paid in subsidies reached 
$107,743,660.25, distributed as follows: 

Paid in cash 146,896,901.95 

Certificates of construction (convertible into 5 per cent bonds) 21, 711, 513. 92 

Paid in bonds 31,127,000.00 

Balance, payable either in cash or bonds 8, 008, 244. 38 

Taking into consideration that in the $31,127,000 paid in bonds, 
$13,500,000 are included, which were paid in gold to the contractors of 
the Tehuantepec Railway at 100 per cent premium, such sum must be 
regarded as $27,000,000 silver, thus increasing the former total to 
$121,343,660.35 silver." 

In his message to Congress, September 16, 1903, the same authority 
makes the following statement: 

"The increase of the railway sj^stem from the 1st of January, 1903, 
to the date of the message has been 432 kilometers, of which 180 kilo- 
meters have to be credited to the National Railway of Mexico on its 
new line between Huehuetoca and Gonzalez Junction; 70 to the Kansas 
City, Mexico and Orient line; 78 to the Central, on its Panuco and San 
Pedro to Paredon divisions; 14 to the Interoceanic, which has com- 
pleted its line from Cuautla to Chietla, and the remainder to the other 
lines. The railways of the Republic now aggregate 15,918 kilometers, 
and if railways subject to the jurisdiction of the States and private 
branches be added, the total is 18,197 kilometers. I may add that the 
National Railway of Mexico only lacks 92 kilometers to complete the 
standardizing of its gauge between the capital city and Laredo." 

Most of the railways built in Mexico have obtained large subsidies 
from the Government, ranging from $6,000 to $10,000 per kilometer, 
according to the difficulties of the work, these subsidies having con- 
tributed very largely to the prosperous condition of the roads, as the 
proceeds have been used not only to build the line, but in some cases 
to pay the interest on bonds. 

At present the railroad system of the Republic connects the capital 
with the principal centers of population, commerce, and production; 

« "Los Estados Unidos M6xicanos, sus progresos en veinte aiios de paz, 1877-1897." 
Rafael de Zayas Enriquez, New York, p. 195. 



RAILED ADS. 



829 



also with some of the more important seaports of the Republic and 
with the United States. The Tehuantepec road, formerly owned and 
operated by the Government, is the only line connecting the Pacific 
and Gulf coasts. Lines traversing the central plateau as far as the 
United States frontier connect the City of Mexico with the capitals of 
Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, Chihuahua, 
and San Luis Potosi, over the Central Railroad, while the International 
road connects it with Durango; the National line with Mexico (Toluca), 
Guanajuato, Michoacan, San Luis Potosi, Coahuila, and Nuevo Leon; 
the Mexican International with Puebla and Veracruz (via Orizaba and 
Jalapa), and the Southern Mexican with Puebla, Tlaxcala, and Oaxaca. 
The port of Manzanillo is connected with the capital of Colima; the 
port of Matamoros with Reynosa and San Miguel, in Tamaulipas; 
Tampico with San Luis Potosi and Monterey, and the Tehuantepec 
line connects Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf with Salina Cruz on the Pacific. 
The International in its southern extension passes near Cuernavaca 
(Morelos), and the Cuernavaca and Pacific road runs to Iguala (Guerrero) 
and will soon connect with Acapulco on the Pacific. Merida on the 
Yucatan Peninsula is connected by rail with Progreso and Campeche. 

The slopes on the Pacific side of the great central table-land present 
much greater engineering difi&culties than those on the east or Gulf 
side, hence the slow development of means of communication in the 
former section. 

According to the latest available statistics from Mexico, the number 
of kilometers of railroad on Decmber 31, 1902, was as follows: 

Meters. 

Railroads under Federal grants 15, 137, 505 

Tramways „ . 502, 332 

Suburban lines under State grants 1, 498, 054 

Portable railways, Decauville system , , 2, 299, 329 

Total 19,437,220 

The following table shows the name of the railroads, date of con- 
cession, and the total earnings for all the roads operating under Fed- 
eral grants on December 31, 1902, the latest available Mexican official 
data:« 



Name of railroad. 



Ferrocarril Mexicano 

Ferrocarril del Distrito Federal 

Ferrocarril Nacional de Mexico 

Ferrocarril de Sonora 

Ferrocarril Interocednico '....'..'.... 

Ferrocarril Central Mexicano '.'.'.'.'..'.'.'..'.'. 

Ferrocarril de Cuernavaca y Paciflco f> '. 

Ferrocarril de Tehuacan & Esperanza 

Ferrocarril Occidental de Mexico (Sinaloa and Durango). 

Ferrocarril de Tlalmanalco & Ghalco c 

Ferrocarril Internacional Mexicano 



Date of 
concession. 



Nov, 
Dec. 
Sept. 
Sept. 
Apr. 
Sept. 
Dec. 
Nov. 
Aug. 
Feb. 
June 



27, 1867 
25,1877 
13, 1880 
14, 1880 
16, 1878 

8. 1880 
31, 1895 
28, 1883 
16, 1880 

3. 1881 
7,1881 



aAnuario Estadistico, 1902. 

6 Data included in figures representing earnings of the Central Mexicano. 

c Now called ' ' Xico & San Rafael. ' ' (See table. ) 



Total earn- 
ings.. 1902. 

$5, 100, 828. 10 
2,251,479.74 
8, 818, 778. 23 
1,216,124.27 
4,625,248.82 

21, 132, 226. 98 



85, 676. 58 
69,583.95 



6,497,491. 



330 



MEXICO. 



Name of railnjad. 



Date of 
concession. 



Total earn- 
ings, 1902. 



Ferrocarril de Santa Ana A Tlaxfala 

Ferrocarril de Toluca a S. Juan de las Huertas 

Ferrocarril de Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala y Rio A'erde" 

Ferrocarril Mineral de Chihuahua '. 

Ferrocarril Mexicano del Sur 

Ferrocarril de Monterej' al Golfo" 

Ferrocarril de Cordoba "d Tuxtepec '> 

Ferrocarril de Michoac&n al Pacifico" 

Ferrocarril de Monte Alto 

Ferrocarril Industrial de Puebla 

Ferrocarril Mexicano del Norte 

Ferrocarril de Campeche & Lerrna 

Compania Constructora Nacional Mexicana 

Ferrocarril de Toluca A Tenango 

Ferrocarril de Rio Grande, Sierra Madre y Paciflco 

Ferrocarril de Lerdo A Torreon 

Ferrocarril de Torres & Minas Prietas 

Ferrocarril de Esperanza & Xiichil 

Ferrocarril de Xico & San Rafael 

Ferrocarril de Jalapa & Teocelo 

Ferrocarril de Veracruz al Paciflco 

Ferrocarril de Cazadero & Soils 

Ferrocarril de Coahuila y Paciflco 

Ferrocarril de Tenango & Santa Maria 

Ferrocarril de Chihuahua al Paciflco 

Ferrocarril de Tlacotepec & Huajuapan de Leon 

Ferrocarril de San Juan Bautista & Tierra Colorada 6 Rio Gonzales 

Ferrocarril de Guanajuato & Dolores Hidalgoa 

Ferrocarril de Parral y Durango 

Ferrocarril Oriental Mexicano 

Ferrocarril de Nacozari 

Ferrocarril de Oaxaca & Ejutla 

Ferrocarril de Naco & Cananea 

Farrocarril de Marfll a San Gregorio 

Farrocarril de Orizaba al Ingenio 

Ferrocarril de M6rida & Peto 

Ferrocarril de Veracruz A Al varado 

Ferrocarril de M6rida & Progreso 

Ferrocarril de Coahuila a Zacatecas 

Ferrocarril de Jalapa & Coatepec y Las Fuentes 

Ferrocarril de Tultenango tt la Trinidad 

Ferrocarril de Hidalgo 

Ferrocarril de M^rida & Campeche 

Ferrocarril de Merida & Valladolid 

Ferrocarril de San Andres Chalchicomula 

Ferrocarril de San Marcos & Tecolutlac 

Ferrocarril de San Juan Bautista A Paso del Carrizal 

Ferrocarril de C&rdenas & Rio Grijalva 

Ferrocarril de M6rida A Izamal 

Ferrocarril de Salamanca y Jaral 



Dec. 

May 

June 

Dec. 

Apr. 

Nov. 

May 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Apr. 

Feb. 

Sept. 

Dec. 

Mar. 

July 

June 

Dec. 

Mar. 

Dec. 

Mar. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Aug. 

May 

Apr. 

Dec. 

June 

June 

Jan. 

Aug. 

Apr. 

Oct. 

Dec. 

Sept. 

Mar. 

Mar. 

Jan. 

June 

June 

June 

Feb. 

Feb. 

Dec. 

Sept. 

June 

Sept. 

May 

May 

Aug. 



1882 
1883 
1883 
1898 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1888 
1888 
1888 
1890 
1887 
1880 
1891 
1896 
1898 
1897 
1892 
1898 
1895 
1898 
1893 
1899 
1900 
1891 
1891 
1895 
1893 
1898 
1902 
1899 
1898 
1900 
1898 
188 L 
1878 
1878 
1874 
1873 
1893 
1897 
1878 
1887 
1880 
1881 
1881 
1881 
1883 
1884 



812, 993. 60 
34, 890. 87 



(33, 176. 61 
882, 054. m 



53, 614. 39 

61,671.88 

432, 993. 11 

4, 504. 07 

144, 474. 92 

104, 316. 94 

286, 825. 13 

168, 947. 21 

65, 845. 69 

255. 729. 53 

165. 134. 54 
89,350.63, 

241,568.913 

7, 045. OOj 

257, 948. if 

3, 471. og 

344, 764. 
29, 869. 4'Z 
12, 304. 32 



279, 488. 98 
112, 248. 85 
122, 741. 44 

43, 745. 72 
452, 949. 7^ 

4l,268.0J 



15, 235. 271 
'25,'s86."46i 



a Data included in figures representing earnings of the Ferrocarril Nacional. 
ft Now called "Veracruz al Pacyflco." (See table.) 
cData included in the figures for the " Interoceanico." 

Besides the railroads already mentioned as belonging to the Mexicai 
Central, the following lines should be added: Pachuca a Tampico, Fe- 
rrocarril de Cuernavaca y Paciflco, Tula a Pachuca, Lerdo a San Pedrol 
de las Colonias, Ferrocar riles Industriales, and San Bartolo y Rio] 
Verde. 

Other railroads in the Republic, operating under State grants, are| 
shown in this table: 





Total 

length of 

line. 


Length of 
city lines. 


Length of 

suburban 

lines. 


Length of 
portable 
railways. 


Power. 


state. 


Horse. 


steam. 


Elec- 
tricity. 


Aguascalientes 


Meters. 

17,224 

228, 540 

32, 926 

7,000 

4,000 

57, 303 


ITeters. 

12, 054 

27,000 

17, 936 

3,000 


Meters. 
5,170 
107, 540 
13, 340 
4,000 
4,000 
47, 000 


Meters. 


Meters. 

12,054 

225, 000 

27, 926 

7,000 


Meters. 
5,170 
3,540 
5,000 


Meters. 


Campeche . . 


94, 000 
1,650 




Coahuila 




Colima 




Chiapas 




4,666 
47, 000 




Chihuahua 


10, 363 




9,000 


1,363 



CAPITAL IlsrVESTED. 



331 





Total 

length of 

line. 


Length of 
city lines. 


Length of 

suburban 

lines. 


Length of 
portable 
railways. 


Power. 


state. 


Horse. 


Steam. 


Elec- 
tricity. 




Meters. 

57, 400 

156,809 

6,252 

21, 612 

113, 111 

9,050 

32, 506 

51, 972 

85, 937 

1,500 

369,559 

38, 240 

70, 150 

6,175 

28, 338 

64, 311 

19, 971 

47, 142 

1,000 

38, 421 

118,884 

2, 646, 372 

67, 950 


Meters. 
7,000 
38, 248 


Meters. 
50, 400 
89,404 


Meters. 


Meters. 

7,000 
156,809 

6, 252 
21, 612 
90, 056 

9,050 
32, 506 
51, 972 
41,937 

1,500 
360, 809 
38, 240 
54,650 

6,176 


Meters. 
50, 400 



Meters. 




29, 157 
6,252 












21, 612 
66, 189 

9,050 
10, 151 

2,602 
30,937 

1,500 
51, 350 
11,240 
33, 650 

4,042 

7,338 
18, 211 
16, 623 










46, 922 




23,065 












22, 355 

8,870 

55, 000 










40, 500 








44, 000 




Oaxaca 

Piiebla 






266, 509 

27,000 

32, 500 

2, 133 

21,000 

3,000 

3,348 

47,142 


51,700 


8,750 








San LuisPotosi 


4,000 


15,500 










7,338 


21, 000 






43, 100 


64, 311 
19,971 










Territory of Lower 




47,142 




Territory of Tepic . . . 


1,000 




1,000 
38,421 
97, 034 
2, 484, 372 
25, 950 




38, 421 

43, 310 

510, 690 

49, 000 










46, 574 
35, 712 
18, 950 


29, 000 
1,999,970 


21, 850 
62, 000 
42, 000 


















Total 


4,299,715 


502, 332 


1, 498, 054 


2, 299, 329 


3, 897, 945 


400,407 


1,363 







On the 31st of December, 1903, the number of kilometers of railways 
in operation in Mexico was 16,474, divided into five groups as follows: 

Kilometers. 

Steam traction 15, 953. 956 

Electric traction.- 12. 749 

Animal traction 240. 271 

Electric, steam, and animal traction 241. 428 

Animal and steam traction 25. 500 

The first group consists of the various lines which constitute the 
general steam railway system of Mexico. 

The second group consists of the 10.817 kilometers from Lerdo to 
Torreon, and 1.932 kilometers of the Ciudad de Juarez tramways, 
which use solely electric traction. 

The third group embraces the 17 side lines of varying lengths from 
stations on the main steam lines, which use traction by mules or 
horses, and may be called local feeders. 

The fourth group consists of the tramways in the Federal District 
Avhich radiate from the Zocalo or Central Square in front of the 
National Palace to all parts of the cit}^, and to all the suburbs; these 
use electric traction on all the principal lines, steam on one outside 
freight line, and animal traction on various minor lines which have 
not yet been changed from the primitive construction. 

The fifth is the line from Esperanza to Xuchil which uses steam on 
one part and mules on the other. 

Capital invested. — The total amount of foreign capital invested in 
Mexican railways in 1903, less the sum paid in subsidies, was 
$767,151,849 Mexican currency, according to "The Mexican Journal 



332 MEXICO. 

of Commerce," April 1, 1904. The amount involved in the several 
roads are as follows: 

Mexican |82, 421, 653 

Mexican Central (entire system) 361, 510, 194 

National (not including controlled line) 169, 797, 304 

International 83, 688, 440 

Interoceanic 54, 983, 851 

Mexican Southern 24, 000, 000 

Chihuahua and Pacific 16, 511, 145 

Mexican National Construction Company - 1, 760, 000 

Kansas City, Mexico and Orient 1, 522, 206 

Mexican Northern 3, 652, 000 

Chihuahua Mineral 682, 864 

Nacozari to the border 1, 650, 000 

Naco to Cananea 2, 500, 000 

Parral and Durango 2, 200, 000 

Sierra Madre 6, 846, 000 

Sonora 15,035,125 

Tlacotepec and Huajuapam 1, 000, 000 

Tultenango and Yondese 754, 287 

Veracruz and Alvarado 1, 000, 000 

Veracruz to Pacific 22, 000, 000 

The amounts above are figured at an exchange of 220. 

The number of roads constructed with Mexican capital alone is 55, 
a total mileage of something in the neighborhood of 4,000 kilometers. 
These roads are mostly of narrow gauge type and average on the 
whole about 70 kilometers to the line. 

Subsidies. — The total amount paid in subsidies, according to the 
same authority, was $151,251,096.68, of which the Tehuantepec 
National received the largest share, with the Mexican Central follow- 
ing the second. 

The aggregate amounts paid to each road are as follows: 

Tehuantepec National |45, 708, 428. 53 

Mexican 13, 685, 194. 59 

Progreso to Merida 218, 718. 00 

Hidalgo 947, 296. 37 

Veracruz to Alvarado 394, 000. 00 

Merida to Peto - 871, 295. 83 

Interoceanic 6, 536, 377. 74 

Sinaloa and Durango 557, 343. 01 

Mexican Central 27, 301, 395. 00 

Mexican National 12, 309, 870. 00 

Sonora 2, 171, 310. 00 

Merida to Valladodil 298, 158. 00 

Tlalmanalco Railroad 159, 900. 00 

Merida to Campeche 1, 124, 665. 00 

San Marcos Nautla 419, 508. 00 

San Juan Bautista 20, 125. 00 

Chalchicomula Railway 22, 238. 65 



AMERICAN CAPITAL. 333 

Tlaxcala to Santa Ana $28, 000. 00 

Cardenas to Grijalva Eiver 33, 750. 00 

Toluca to laa Huertas 46, 250. 00 

Venegas, Cedral, Matehuala and Rio Verde. 341, 000. 00 

Merida to Sotuta 395,088.00 

Mexican Soutiiern 11, 248, 805. 10 

Tonala to frontier 444, 000. 00 

Monterey and Mexican Gulf 5, 534, 552. 24 

Tecolutla Espinal 100,500.00 

Cordoba to Tuxtepec 408, 000. 00 

Pachuca to Tampico 665, 000. 00 

Michoacan and Pacific 502,000.00 

Mexican Northeastern 294, 000. 00 

Salamanca to Valle de Santiago 280, 000. 00 

Veracruz to Boca del Rio 83, 000. 00 

Tula to Zacualtipan and Tampico 560, 000. 00 

Lower California 31,300.00 

Monte Alto - 1 182,000.00 

Mexico, Cuernavaca and Pacific 5, 225, 300. 00 

Oaxaca Coal Railway 603, 700. 00 

Chihuahua and Pacific 1, 400, 000. 00 

Jerez to Corralitos 2, 000, 000. 00 

Veracruz and Pacific 3, 569, 500. 00 

Xico and San Rafael 587, 500. 00 

San Luis Potosi and Rio Verde 240, 000. 00 

San Marcos to Tecolutla 150, 850. 00 

Tacubaya y Santa Fe (D. F. ) 16, 800. 00 

Mexican National Construction Company 968, 965. 00 

Sierra Madre „ '. 1, 890, 000. 00 

Tlacotepec and Huajuapam 45, 000. 00 

Total 151 , 251 , 096. 68 

Atnerican capital. — Consul-General Barlow, in his report already 
mentioned, estimates that about 80 per cent of the total capital invested 
in railroads in Mexico is represented by American capital. In this 
connection the Consul-General says: 

"All of the important railroads in Mexico (except the Interoceanic, 
which runs between this cit}^ (Mexico) and Veracruz, and was recently 
acquired by the Mexican Government; the Mexican Railway, which 
also runs between this citj^ and Veracruz, which is controlled by Eng- 
lish capital; and the National Tehuan tepee Railway, which is being- 
reconstructed by S. Pearson & Son, of London, under contract with 
the Mexican Government), are owned by American capital. 

"A large amount of American capital has been invested in the rail- 
roads of this country within the past two years, the Mexican National 
Railroad having passed from British to American control, and the 
Mexican Central, always American, having acquired some short lines 
which were not owned by American capital. Since the construction 
of the Mexican Central by Americans, some twenty years ago, United 



334 MEXICO. 

States capital has always been the strongest factor in [Mexican rail- 
roads, and at present it constitutes about SO per cent of the total capi- 
tal invested in railroads in this countrv. 

••The [Mexican Central Railroad represents the largest single Ameri- 
can interest in Mexico. The amount. ^158,999,979.45, given as the 
capita] employed, represents what has actually been paid out up to the 
present time for the construction and equipment of the road. The 
Mexican National is the next strongest, with a capital invested of 
$107,350,000. This entire amount has not been actually spent on the 
construction and equipment of the road up to date, but it will be within 
the next year. * * * Xhe Mexico. Cuernavaca and Pacific Rail- 
way has recently been sold to the Mexican Central, but since the 
transfer has not as vet been made officially, the road is considered in 
this report as a separate road." 

Intercontinental JRaihcay. — ^The report '' submitted to the Secretary 
of State of the United States bv Mr. Charles M. Pepper. Commissioner 
to carry out the resolution of the Second International Conference of 
American States, held in the City of Mexico in the winter 1901-2, con- 
tains most valuable data in regard to the progress made by the inter- 
continental railway in Mexico. The following information is taken 
from that important document: 

'•Under authority of the general railway law the franchise was 
granted for the line known by its corporate title as the Pan-American 
Railway, which should start from a point on the National Tehuantepec 
Railroad and should continue through Tonala to the border of Guate- 
mala. The point selected was the station of San Geronimo, which is a 
few miles northeast of the town of Tehuantepec. The route surveyed 
to the border of Guatemala was 260 miles (41S kilometers). On Janu- 
ary 1. 1904, SS miles (141.5 kilometers) were constructed^ leaving 172 
miles (276.5 kilometers) to be built. By the terms of the concession 
the subsidy is granted in bonds to the amount of ^12,000 Mexican 
silver, bearing 5 per cent interest, for each kilometer constructed, or 
$3,816,000 for the whole line, and 80 kilometers are required to be 
built each twelve months. The entire system must be finished by 
September 11. 1907. but your Commissioner was informed there is a 
probability that the earnest desire of the Mexican Government for its 
earlier completion will be gratified. This railway is to be of standard 
gauge. 4 feet Si inches. 

•*In view of the termination of the Yeracniz to the Pacific Rail- 
road, which has placed the City of Mexico in direct communication 
with the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, including the Pan-American junc- 
tion point of San Geronimo. the branch running southeast from 

a "Pan-American Eailway," Senate Document Xo. 206, oSth Congre^, 2d session, 
Washington, 1904. 



RAILWAY GROWTH. 335 

Oaxaca, which formerly was considered a necessary part of the inter- 
continental connection, is not of immediate consequence. It has been 
xtended as far as Ejutla. 

^''Progress in huilding interoceanic lines. — No less important than 
[he north and south connection are the projects for interoceanic roads 
which will join Tampico and the other Gulf of Mexico ports with the 
ports of the Pacific. These are of significance, both from the world 
commerce in transit which they are expected to handle and from the 
interior trade which they will help to develop. On January 1 of the 
present year (lOOtt) there was only one means of through interoceanic 
railway communication. This was from Veracruz, on the Atlantic, 
via Cordoba and Tehuantepec, to Salina Cruz, on the Pacific. 

"Four other through lines are planned. These are, first, the exten- 
sion of the road known as the Cuernavaca and Pacific from its present 
(terminus on the river Balsas to Acapulco, probably via Chilpancingo; 
second, the Mexican Central from Tuxpan to Colima, a distance of 48 
miles, from which place a line now runs to the port of Manzanillo; 
third, the International Railroad from Durango to Mazatlan, 220 miles 
(354 kilometers), at an estimated cost of §12,.500,000 gold; fourth, the 
Kansas City, Mexico and Orient from Chihuahua to Topolobampo, 
1 435 miles (700 kilometers). 

"On the Kansas City, Mexico and Orient line 124 miles (200 kilo- 
j meters). Chihuahua to Minaca, have been constructed, and 45 miles 
' (72 kilometers), from Topolobampo toward Minaca, also have been 
built. Work is in progress on the other sections. 

"The Cuernavaca and Pacific Railroad is controlled by the Mexican 
Central, and as that company is extending its main branch from Gua- 
dalajara through Tuxpan and Colima to Manzanillo, the probability is 
that it will first reach the Pacific over this route. 

"The extension of the International from Durango to Mazatlan will 
place New Orleans within 1,300 miles of a Pacific seaport. 

"Some of the interoceanic extensions have been deferred tempora- 
rily while awaiting the action of the Government in changing the 
basis of its monetary system, but none has been abandoned. 

^'"Remarkable railway groioth. — The growth of the Mexican rail- 
roads has been one of the marvels of the last quarter of a century. In 
1873, when the pioneer line, the Mexican and Veracruz, was con- 
cluded, the total extent was 335 miles (540 kilometers). In 1903 there 
were in operation 9,701 miles (15,612 kilometers) This did not include 
the horse tramwaj^s and the electric and other traction lines in the 
cities and States. At this date there are approximately 10,000 miles 
(16,000 kilometer.s) of railroads in actual operation. 

"This remarkable advance is a tribute to the farsighted liberality 
and the statesmanship of His Excellency Gen. Porfirio Diaz, under 



336 MEXICO. 

whose successive administrations as President foreign capital has 
shown its appreciation of the security and stability afforded it and has 
taken advantage of the profitable returns resulting from developing 
the enormous natural resources and fostering the commerce of the 
country." 

The report in question is supplemented by an appendix containing 
statistical tables on Mexican railways prepared for the information of 
the commissioner under the direction of Mr. Leandro Fernandez, the 
Minister of Communications and Public Works of Mexico, showing the 
subsidized and unsubsidized railroads for which concessions have been 
granted, the work alreadj^ done, and the distances yet to be covered. 
From the data submitted it appears that on January 1, 1904, the total 
of the systems engaged in extensions and new constructions, and parts 
of which were in operation, was 9,740 miles (15,685 kilometers). The 
existing concessions include 2,235 miles (3,597 kilometers) of subsi- 
dized construction and 3,843 miles (6,188 kilometers) of unsubsidized 
construction, or in all 6,078 miles (9,785 kilometers). The total 
amount of subsidies granted by the Government in cash and bonds for 
the lines now under construction or making extensions is $30,522,000 
Mexican silver. A few of the bonds bear interest at 6 per cent, bat 
the larger portion are 5 per cent. In addition to the cash guaranties 
public lands to the value of $5,136,000 have been granted. 

Principal railroads. — The Ferrocarril Mexicano (Mexican Railway) 
was the first steam road built in the Republic. Its construction 
was begun in 1857, and portions of the line were opened to the public 
at different times. The Puebla branch was inaugurated in 1869, the 
main branch being opened for its entire length in 1873 and the 
Ometusco-Pachuca extension in December, 1890. The total length of 
the line is 516 kilometers 500 meters, as follows: Mexico to Veracruz, 
423 kilometers 750 meters; Apizaco to Puebla, 47 kilometers, and from 
Ometusco to Pachuca, 45 kilometers 750 meters. It is a standard- 
gauge road, and runs through the States of Veracruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, 
and Mexico, starting at the city of Veracruz and passing through the 
towns of Cordova, Orizaba, Puebla, and Pachuca, its terminal point 
being the City of Mexico. It is considered one of the most beautiful 
and picturesque railway lines in the world, passing as it does from 
tropical vegetation of the valleys to the eternal snows on the summits 
of extinct volcanoes. From Veracruz to Orizaba the grade of ascent 
is gradual, skirting the mountains and traversing valleys and canyons. 
At the latter point the tropical landscapes come to an end and are suc- 
ceeded by those of the temperate zone, the altitude being 1,200 meters 
above sea level. The line continues its ascent, climbing the mountains 
overbeds of volcanic formation at dizzy heights, through tunnels, etc., 
until the semicircular viaduct of "El Infiernillo" is reached, which is 



MEXICAN CENTRAL RAILWAY. 



337 



considered one of the boldest and most remarkable engineering feats 
of modern times. At this point the altitude reached is 2,450 meters 
above sea level, the line passing into the cold zone, and after a few 
hours' run the traveler enters the Central Plateau. The rapid descent 
of Maltrata, the grade being 4 per cent, necessitates the use of double 
locomotives of the Farlie system for the safety of the trains. From 
1893 to December 31, 1902, the Mexican Railway carried 7,877,113 
passengers and 7,002,103 tons of freight, the total earnings of the line 
being $39,058,626.« 

Ferrocarril Central Mexicano.— The Mexican Central Railway is the 
result of the amalgamation of different Government concessions 
granted originally either to the company now in control of the line or 
to others. Work on the main line, from Mexico to Paso del Norte, 
was commenced on May 25, 1880, and completed March 8, 1884, the 
total extent being 1,970 kilometers, which indicates a per diem labor 
rate of 1,500 meters. The expenses of construction are estimated at 
$35,500,000, of which amount the Government contributed $18,620,000. 
This is the longest and most important road in the Republic, having 
connections with the United States and thereby facilitating trade, 
while at the same time it protects the States of Chihuahua and Sonora 
from the depredations of certain Indian tribes and assists in the devel- 
opment of the mineral wealth of the "Sierra." The total length in 
working condition was, on December 31, 1902, 3,734 kilometers 483 
meters. 

The road was opened to regular passenger traffic on the 10th of 
April, 1884. The Guadalajara division was opened May 21, 1888, and 
the Tampico division was finished March 30, 1890, thereby bringing 
the line to the Gulf of Mexico at Tampico. The railway is standard 
gauge, and traverses the Federal District, the States of Mexico, 
Hidalgo, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Zacatecas, 
Coahuila, Durango, and Chihuahua. It affords an outlet to the agri- 
cultural centers of San Juan del Rio, Penjamo, Silao, the extensive 
territory called El Bajio, and Lagos; to such manufacturing cities as 
Queretaro, Celaya, and Leon; to the rich mining districts of Pachuca, 
Zimapan, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Sombrerete, Sierra Mojada, and Chi- 

aThe Mexican Railway connects in Mexico City with the Mexican Central and 
Mexican National for northern and western points and with the Interoceanic Rail- 
road for Morales; in Puebla, with the Mexican Southern for Oaxaca, Puerto, Angel, 
and Tehuantepec, and with the Interoceanic for Izucar deMatamoros; in San Marcos, 
with the Nautla Railroad for San Juan de los Llanos; in Esperanza, with the Tehuan- 
tepec Railroad; in Cordova, with the Agricola Railroad for Motzorongo and Tuxtepec; 
and in Veracruz, with the Alvarado Radroad for Tlacotalpam, San Andres, Tuxtla, 
Cosamaloapan, and Playa Vicente, and with steamship lines for Mexican Gulf ports, 
namely, Progreso, Campeche, Carmen, Frontera, Coatzacoalcos, Tuxpam, and Tam- 
pico, and for Habana, and American, English, Spanish, French, and German ports. 
509a— 04 22 



388 MEXICO. 

huahua; to the cotton country in the valleys of the rivers Nazas and 
Conchos, and to the commercial centers of Mexico, Guadalajara, Aguas- 
calientes, San Luis Potosi, and Tampico.^ 

From 1893 to December, 1902, the Mexican Central carried 15,694,405 
passengers,the receipts from this branchof the service being $37,445,255; 
also 16,064,885 tons of freight, which produced $110,040,099, or a total 
for the period under consideration of $147,485,354. 

Ferrocarril Interoceanico. — The Interoceanic Railwaj^ is the result of 
a concession to build a road connecting Veracruz and Acapulco (hence 
its name Interoceanic), which was granted by the Mexican Government 
in April, 1878. In 1902 the length of the line was 778 kilometers. 
From 1893 to December 31, 1902, the earnings of the road were as 
follows: Passengers, 9,856,388, which produced $6,103,408; freight, 
5,181,776 tons, producing $25,525,993, or a total of $31,629,401.^ 

Ferrocarril Nacional Mexicano. — The Mexican National Railroad 
was inaugurated on November 1, 1888, but its construction had been 
under consideration since 1857. It is the shortest route between 
Mexico and the United States. This road traverses United States 
territory for a distance of 260 kilometers 700 meters from Laredo 

«The Mexican Central connects at El Paso with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa 
Fe; for all points northeast and west with the Texas and Pacific; with the Southern 
Pacific for points north and east; with Southern Pacific Company and the Atchison, 
Topeka and Santa Fe for points north and west in the United States; at Gallego, with 
stage for Ascencion, Casas Grandes, and Corralitos; at Chihuahua, with stage for 
Cusihuiriachic, Guerrero, and Eosario; at Jimenez, with stage for Allende and Par- 
ral; at Escalon, with Mexican Northern Railway for Sierra Mojada; atTorreon, with 
the Mexican International for Durango, Monterey, and Tampico, via the Mexican 
Gulf Railway; at Fresnillo, with stage for Sombrerete; at Zacatecas, with Sullivan 
Construction Railway for Ojo Caliente, with tramway for Guadalupe, and with stage 
for Jerez; at San Luis Potosi, with the Mexican National for Catorce Mines, Saltillo, 
Monterey, and San Miguel Allende; at Tampico, with steamers for Galveston, New 
Orleans, Mobile, New York, and European ports; at Celaya, with Mexican National 
for points north and south of that road; at Negrete, La Barca, and La Piedad, with 
stage for Zamora; at Guadalajara, with stage for Mazatlan, Tepic, and Zapotlan; at 
El Castilo, with tramway for the falls of Juanacatlan; at Atequiza, with stage for 
Lake Chapala; at the City of Mexico, with the Mexican Railway and Interoceanic 
Railway for Puebla, Cholula, Orizaba, Veracruz, Jalapa, Cuautla, Oaxaca via Mexi- 
can Southern; with the Hidalgo Railway for Tulancingo; at Huachinango, with the 
Mexican National for Toluca, Morelia, and Lake Patzcuaro, and with stage for 
Cuernavaca. 

b This line connects at the City of Mexico with Mexican Central and Mexican 
National railroads for points north and west; at Otumba, with Mexican Railway; at 
Irolo, with Hidalgo Railway for Pachuca; at Puebla, with Mexican Southern for 
Oaxaca, with Mexican Railway for Tlaxcala, and with Industrial Road (animal 
traction) for Cholula and San Marcos with the Nautla Railroad and Mexican Rail- 
way; at Jalapa, with tramway for Coatepec; at Veracruz, with Mexican Railway for 
Alvarado, and with steamers for Gulf ports, Habana, United States, and Europe; at 
Compania, with tramway for Chalco; at Yautepec, with private conveyance for 
Cuernavaca; at Jojutla, with stage for principal towns in the State of Guerrero. 



MEXICAN NATIONAL EAILWAY. 339 

(Texas) to Corpus Christi, the terminus of the line. From 1893 to 
1902 the total earnings of the road were as follows: $11,337,559 for 
passengers, and freight, $49,115,767, a total of $60,483,326; the num- 
ber of passengers being 8,513,991 and the freight weighing 8,904,864 
tons.** 

A report of this road dated March 27, 1903, gives the following 
data for 1902: The gross earnings from all sources for the year 1902, 
in Mexican currency, were $9,262,859.61; the total expenses of oper- 
ating were $6,048,684.07, leaving the net earnings $3,214,175.54, which, 
reduced to gold at the average price of the Mexican dollar for the 
j^ear (41.3314 cents), gives $1,329,428.38. 

The gross earnings per mile of road operated were $6,862.70, as 
compared with $5,837.23 in 1901, the percentage of increase being 
17.57. The operating expenses per mile of road operated were 
$4,481.37, as compared with $3,628.25 in 1901, the percentage of 
increase being 23.51. The net earnings per mile of road operated 
were $2,381.33, as compared with $2,208.98 in 1901, the percentage of 
increase being 7.80. Average miles operated in 1902 were 1,349.74, 
as compared with 1,323.32 in the preceding 3^ear. 

Upon the completion of the new line between Huehuetoca and Gon- 
zalez the track mileage will be as follows: Texas Mexican Railway, con- 
trolled by ownership of all its securities. Corpus Christi to Laredo, 
161.620; International line from Laredo to Santiago station. City of 
Mexico, 802.311; City of Mexico, Colonia station, to Tacuba, three- 
rail track, 2.979; Cintura line, three-rail track, 3.293, making a total 
of standard gauge of 970. 203 miles. The trackage of the narrow-gauge 
system is as follows: City of Mexico to Uruapan, 320.826 miles; 
Acambaro to Gonzalez, 54.959; Vanegas, Cedral, and Matehuala, 
37.282; Guanajuato, San Luis de la Paz, and Pozos, 31.441; Michoacan 
and Pacific (leased line), 56.927, making a total of narrow-gauge line 
aggregating 601.435 miles. The total mileage, both standard and nar- 
row gauge, is 1,471.638, not including the narrow-gauge line from 
Matamoros to San Miguel de Tamaulipas (75 miles) and the Browns- 
ville and Gulf line of 1 mile. The company has a very favorable con- 
cession from the Mexican Government for building the line from San 
Miguel to Monterey, which it is proposed to construct standard gauge, 
and in connection therewith to broaden the gauge of the existing line 

« The connections of the Mexican National are at Laredo, for points north and east 
in the United States; at Matamoros, with the Mexican Gulf Eailwaj' for Venadito, 
Montemorelos, and Tampico; at Vanegas, with Vanegas, Cedral and Rio Verde 
Railroad for Cedral and Matehuala; at San Luis Potosi with Mexican Central for 
Aguascalientes and Tampico; at Celaya, with same road for Guanajuato and Guada- 
lajara; at Maravatio, with Michoacan and Pacific Railroad for Angangu^o; atToluca, 
with San Juan Railroad for Valle; at Mexico City, with the Hidalgo, the Inter- 
oceanic, and the Mexican for Pachuca, Puebla, Veracruz, Jalapa, Orizaba, and 
Cuautla Morelos, and other lines recently acquired. 



340 MEXICO. 

between Matamoros and San Miguel, which will make the total distance 
from Matamotos to Monterey approximately 232 miles. The mileage 
above noted does not include that of the Mexican International Railroad 
(880 miles), control of which was acquired by obtaining $15,786,100 of 
the capital stock out of a total issue of $20,708,200 and the total issue 
of income bonds, $4,44:9,000, which was paid for by the issue of 
$7,000,000 preferred stock and 17,000,000 4 per cent consolidated bonds 
of the new company, as provided for in the readjustment plan. 

The following concession has been granted the National Railroad 
Company : 

" During a period of twenty years, from October 31, 1903, the Gov- 
ernment will not grant to any person or corporation other than the 
National Railwaj^ Company of Mexico, its assignees, successors, or 
lessees any right, privilege, or concession to construct, maintain, or 
operate any railway line of any kind whatever in a zone extending 
along the northeastern frontier of Mexico and the United States, said 
zone being bounded on the northeast by the Bravo River (Rio Grande 
del Norte) and on the southwest by a line drawn at a distance of 50 
kilometers from said river and parallel thereto in that part of its 
course which is comprised between the Gulf of Mexico and a meridian 
passing through a point situated upon said Bravo River 100 kilometers, 
measured along the bed of the river, to the northwest of Ciudad 
Porfirio Diaz, in the State of Coahuila." 

The concession to which the foregoing refers is granted subject to 
the following conditions: 

The company will complete, construct, and equip its line from 
Monterey to Matamoros within three years from January 1, 1904. 
If on January 1, 1907, said line is not completed, constructed, and 
equipped, the concession will be forfeited. 

Other concessions may be granted within the said zone, provided 
that the lines to be constructed and operated are only branches or 
local routes connecting solely with the main lines of the National 
Railway Company of Mexico. 

At the request of the National Railway Company the Government 
will consent to the consolidation, both as to control and operation, of 
the National, Interoceanie, and International railway systems. 

Ferrocarril Internacional Mexicano. — The Mexican International 
Railway is a standard -gauge railwa}'^, an extension of the Southern 
Pacific. It is the only trunk line built in Mexico with United States 
capital without a subsidy. Believing that a road from the Rio Grande 
toward the Pacific Ocean would cross a section of the Republic of 
Mexico susceptible of great development, this company obtained cer- 
tain concessions in 1881, modified in 1882 and 1883, and work was im- 
mediately commenced at Ciudad Porfirio Diaz and the Lampazos 
branch, thereby reaching the coal fields of San Felipe. The track of 



MEXICO, CUERNAVACA AND PACIFIC RAILWAY 341 

the main line to Torreon was completed January 12, 1888, and the opera- 
tion of the road was commenced two months later. The San Pedro 
branch was built in 1890, and the main line was completed October 1, 
1892, to Durang'o, the capital of the State of Durango. This road 
traverses the States of Coahuila and Durango, and will extend through 
Sinaloa to reach Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast. It touches Eagle 
Pass, Allende, Sabinas, Monclova, Trevino, Jaral, Paila, Torreon, 
Durango, and other points. 

From 1893 to 1902 the total earnings of this road amounted to 
$37,852,435, divided as follows: Passengers (1,552,274), $4,320,692, 
and freight (5,517,129 tons), $33,531,743. The total length in opera- 
tion in 1902 was 1,416 kilometers 680 meters.^ 

Ferrocai'ril de Monterey al Golfo- Mexiccmo. — The Monterey and 
Mexican Gulf Railway is the property of the National Railway Com- 
pany, but the original grant of November 10, 1887, was made to an 
American company, which built the line. It extends from Trevino 
(formerly Venadito), in the State of Coahuila, on the International 
line, as far as Tampico, on the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 624 kilo- 
meters 640 meters, passing through Monterey, the capital of Nuevo 
Leon, and Ciudad Victoria, in Tamaulipas. This road connects at 
Trevino with the International for Torreon, Durango, and points 
north; at Monterey with the Mexican National for points north and 
south on that line; at Tampico with the Mexican Central for San Luis 
Potosi and Aguascalientes, and with steamers for Gulf ports, the 
United States, Cuba, and Europe. 

The earnings of the road since 1893, up to December 31, 1901, were 
$10,555,190, divided as follows: Passengers (1,073,608), $1,315,445, 
and freight (2,024,230 tons), $9,239,745.* 

Ferrocarril de Mexico a Cxiernavaca y el Pacifico. — The Mexico, 
Cuernavaca and Pacific Railway has a total operating length of 292.50 
kilometers, the concession for its construction dating May 30, 1890. 
The first division, from the capital to Cuernavaca, a distance of 119 
kilometers, was opened to traffic on December 12, 1897. Beyond 
Cuernavaca there is a branch line, 40 kilometers long, connecting 
Puente de Ixtala, Iguala, and Mexcala. From 1895 to 1901 '- the move- 

« Connections: At Eagle Pass, with the Southern Pacific Company for ail points in 
the United States; at Allende, with stage for Zaragoza; at Sabinas, with stage for 
San Juan de Sabinas; at Felipe, with stage for Juarez and Progreso; at Berrotenin, 
with stage for Villa de Musquiz (Santa Rosa); at Monclova, with stage for Cuatro 
Cienegas and Sierra Mojada; at Trevino, with the Mexican Gulf Railway for Monte- 
rey, Tampico, and points on the National; at Jaral, with stage for Saltillo, the capital 
of the State of Coahuila; at Paila, with stage for Parras; at Hornos, with stage for 
Viesca; at Torreon, with the Mexican Central Railway for all points on that line and 
its connections. 

''Data for 1902 included in report for the National Railway. 

cData for 1902 included in report for the Mexican Central. 



342 MExtco. 

ment of the line is represented by 331,266 passengers and 701,663 tons 
of freight, the total earnings being estimated at $2,214,869, of which 
$425,454 is for passengers and $1,789,414 for freight. 

Ferrocari'il Nacional Intefocednico de Tehuantepec. — The National 
Interoceanic Tehuantepec Railroad is destined to be one of the most 
important in the Republic. The project was to build across the Isth- 
mus of Tehuantepec and connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. 

The idea of a highway for this purpose is very old, dating from the 
time of Cortes. Surveys and plans have been made from time to 
time, but those of Captain Eads take the first place. The first serious 
efforts to realize this great work began in 1879, when an American 
company obtained a concession; but, unfortunately, the company was 
declared bankrupt in 1882. In 1883 the Mexican Government under- 
took to build the road and laid rails for a distance of some 40 kilome- 
ters. In 1889 and 1890 about 100 more kilometers of rails were laid 
under the McMurdo contract, and it was supposed that there remained 
only 100 kilometers more to build. In 1891 the McMurdo concession 
was rescinded and a new contract was made with Stanhope, Corthell & 
Hampson. By virtue of the authorization which Congress gave the 
Executive in the j^ear 1895, a contract was entered into with Stanhope 
& Corthell for the completion of the road. 

The total length of the line from Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf to 
Salina Cruz on the Pacific measures 309 kilometers 617 meters. The 
Government, pursuant to the authority of Congress, has recently 
leased the road to S. Pearson & Son, of London, for fifty years. The 
firm contracts to build two harbors, one at Coatzacoalcos and the 
other at Salina Cruz and to rebuild and repair the railroad. The 
Government guarantees 6 per cent on whatever investment is made 
in the work, the excess over this percentage reverting to the Govern- 
ment. The firm is to exploit the harbors for its own benefit. At the 
expiration of the fifty years the line, together with the harbors, will 
again become the property of the Government.'* 

Ferrocarril del Rio Grande^ Sierra Madre y el Pacijico. — The Rio 
Grande, Sierra Madre and Pacific Railroad is a new road built entirel}'^ 
b}^ New York capital under a grant bearing date of March 24, 1896. 
It runs from Ciudad Juarez (Chiahuahua) to the southeast part of the 
Republic. Ground was broken for the inception of the line on August 
15, 1896, and the first passenger train ran over the completed line to 
Casas Grandes, a distance of 250 kilometers, on June 27, 1897. The 
cost of construction was $8,400 per English mile, and other expenses, 

«The road traverses the States of Veracruz and Oaxaca, touching Coatzacoalcos, 
Minatithln, Suchil, Tehuantepec, and Salina Cruz. At Coatzacoalcos it connects with 
steamers for Gulf ports, Habana, United States, and Europe; at Tehuantepec with 
private conveyance for Oaxaca, Miahuth'in, and Pachutla, and at Salina Cruz with 
steamers for Tonala, San Benito, and other Pacific coast ports. 



HAltiKOAD TRAFFIC. 



343 



such as right of way, equipment, telegraph lines, etc., amounted to 
about $2,475 more. The total length of the line measures 256 kilo- 
meters 575 meters. The earnings of the road from 1897 to 1902 were 
11,474,869, of which $242,163 were for passengers and $1,232,705 for 
freight. 

The "Anuario Estadistico" for 1902 gives a list of 90 railways, 
including those already mentioned, whose combined length is 15,137 
kilometers 505 meters. There are besides many other minor lines, too 
numerous to mention, and new concessions are being granted ever}^ da}^ 

Federal District.— T^o, railways in the Federal District show earn- 
ings to the amount of $17,195,144 for the period between 1893 and 

1902, divided as follows: Passengers (220,163,684), $14,621,954, and 
$2,573,189 from other sources. There are two systems of traction used 
in the district, animal and electrical, representing the city, suburban 
and other lines, with a total length of 239 kilometers 883 meters. 
The report of the Mexico Electric Tramwa3^s (Limited) for 1902 shows 
that the total distance operated on by electricit}^ under the company's 
system is 116 kilometers. During the j^ear 311,132,030 passengers 
were carried, as against 26,709,225 passengers during the previous 
year (1901), being an increase of 4,422,805 passengers, and the receipts 
amounted to $2,400,787.83, as against $2,103,174.87 in 1901, showing 
an increase of $297,612.96. The increase in prices of material and rise 
in wages as a consequence of the lower exchange during the past year 
as against the previous year may be taken, at a moderate estimate, at 
about 20 per cent. Traffic receipts since the beginning of Januar}^ 

1903, have shown a stead}^ increase. 

Railroad traffic ivith the United States. — According to statistics 
issued by the Treasurj^ Department of the Republic of Mexico, the 
railwa}^ traffic across the Rio Grande between Mexico and the United 
States during the fiscal year 1902-3, as compared with 1901-2, was as 
follows: 





United States to 
Mexico. 


Mexico to United 
States. 


Total traffic. 




Freight 
cars. 


Merchan- 
dise. 


Freight 
cars. 


Merchan- 
dise. 


Freight 
cars. 


Merchan- 
dise. 


1901-2 


37,307 
37, 379 


Tons. 
517,749 
704, 958 


14, 130 

18,737 


Tons. 
199, 276 
207, 514 


61,437 
56, 116 


Tons. 
6''7 025 


1902-3 








Increase in 1902-3 


72 


187,209 


4,607 


98, 238 


4, 679 


285, 447 





The distribution of this traffic at the points where the railways cross 
the Rio Grande on the frontier line was: 

Ciudad Juarez.— 1 ,"19,^ cars, with 123,664 tons of merchandise, from 
the United States into Mexico: 2,506 cars, with 40,276 tons of mer- 
chandise, from Mexico into the United States, making a total traffic of 
10,235 cars, with 163,940 tons of merchandise. 



344 MEXICO. 

Cludad Porfirio Diaz. — 9,182 cars, with 138,371 tons of merchandise, 
from the United States into Mexico; 8,386 cars, with 23,236 tons of 
merchandise, from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, 17,235 
cars, with 161,607 tons of merchandise. 

Laredo. — 18,138 cars, with 228,800 tons of merchandise, from the 
United States into Mexico; 1, 304 cars, with 15,749 tons of merchan- 
dise, from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, 19,442 cars, 
with 244,549 tons of merchandise. 

Nogales. — 2,258 cars, with 26,914 tons of merchandise, from the 
United States into Mexico; 1,934 cars, with 30,015 tons of merchandise, 
from Mexico into the United States; total traffic, 4,192cars, with 56,929 
tons of merchandise. 

The railway traffic across the frontier in the three fiscal years from 
1898-99 to 1900-1901 is shown in the following statement: 

1898-99.— C^iYs from the United States into Mexico, 32,305, with 
467,839 tons of merchandise; cars from Mexico into the United States, 
15,506, with 288,412 tons of merchandise; total traffic, 47,811 cars, 
with 756,251 tons of merchandise. 

1899-1900.— Cars from the United States into Mexico, 47,529, with 
645,953 tons of merchandise; cars from Mexico into the United States, 
24,471, with 242,550 tons of merchandise; total traffic, 72,063 cars, 
with 888,503 tons of merchandise. 

1900-1901.— Cars from the United States into Mexico, 38,629, with 
535,640 tons of merchandise; cars from Mexico into the United States, 
20,368, with 223,720 tons of merchandise; total traffic, 58,997 cars, 
with 759,360 tons of merchandise. 

RAILROAD LAW. 

The general railroad law of the Republic,'^ whereby those of Decem- 
ber 25, 1877, and December 16, 1881 — with the exception of those 
clauses relating to the acquirement of telegraph and telephone lines 
by the Government — are repealed, was promulgated April 29, 1899. 
The law, which is one of considerable length and containing 16 chap- 
ters and 187 articles, is intended to cover everything connected with 
the granting of concessions, each concession having formerl}^ been the 
occasion of a special law. This general law will hereafter apply both 
to new concessions and to those previously granted, the terms of which 
shall not conflict with the law. It also increases the difficulties of 
obtaining subsidized concessions and emphasizes the control exercised 
by the Government over companies. 

« For the convenience of persons wishing to famiUarize themselves with the full 
text of the law, it is kept on file, both in Spanish and English, at the Columbus 
Memorial Library, International Bureau of the American Republics. 



RAILROAD LAW. 845 

Chapter I of the new law is devoted to the classification of railroads 
subject to the Federation, which are divided into two classes, viz: 

I. General routes of communication. 

II. Routes of local interest in the Federal District and in the 
Territories. 

III. Routes of local interest in the State. 

To the first class belong those connecting two or more States or 
connecting the Federal District or a Territory with one or more 
States; those touching at a port or at some point on the coast of the 
Republic or at some point on the border line with a foreign State, and 
those running wholly or in part within a zone of 100 kilometers from 
the dividing line with a foreign State. 

To the second class belong the railroad lines connecting two or more 
towns of the Federal District or of a territory with one another, and 
those which, while not connecting two or more towns by entering to 
their center, have one of their terminals on the outskirts of a town. 

Railroads built or projected within the territory of a State, whether 
under a State concession or not, shall be classed as routes of local 
interest subject to the Federation, providing that the concession has 
been granted by the Federation, or that a subsidy, exemption from 
duties, release from taxation, or any other aid has been granted by the 
Federation. 

General routes of communication are subdivided into lines of prime 
and secondary importance, the lines of prime importance being: 

I. A line connecting the city of Chihuahua with a port on the coast 
of Sonora or the north of Sinaloa. 

II. A line connecting the City of Mexico with a port in the State of 
Guerrero. 

III. A line connecting the Mexican Railway between Orizaba and 
Veracruz with the Tehuantepec Railroad. 

IV. A line from Guadalajara to Tepic Mazatlan. 

V. A line from Guadalajara or some other point and the Mexican 
Central to Colima and Manzanillo. 

VI. A line connecting the Tehuantepec National Railroad with the 
frontier of Guatemala. 

VII. A line connecting the Tehuantepec Railroad with the States of 
Tabasco and Campeche. 

VIII. Any other line which, in the opinion of the Department of 
Communications and Public Works, is of general interest and its con- 
struction an urgent necessity, provided the requirements of the law 
are complied with. 

The construction of railroads subject to the Federation shall be car- 
ried out by corporations or private individuals under concessions to be 
granted by the Executive of the Union, subject to the provisions of the 



346 MEXICO. 

law. Private persons to whom concessions are granted are empowered 
to form companies, the same rule being applicable to corporations. 

In order to obtain a concession *f or the construction of a railroad the 
petition must be made to the Department of Communications and Public 
Works, setting forth the following points: 

I. The terminals of the road and the intermediate points at which it 
touches, either directly or by means of branches. 

II. The period within which the survey of the road is to begin. 

III. The minimum number of kilometers to be built annualh\ 

IV. The period within which the road is to be completed. 

V. The schedule of maximum rates to be charged for the transpor- 
tation of passengers and merchandise, for express and baggage, for 
telegraph service, and for the use of the track by other lines. 

VI. An)^ other facts that may be deemed expedient. 

After the proposition has been accepted, with the modifications 
deemed proper by the Department and the terms of the contract have 
been agreed upon, the applicant shall make a deposit in the general 
Treasury of the Federation at the rate of $150 per kilometer in securi- 
ties of the consolidated public debt. If this provision is not complied 
with, the application shall be regarded as having been withdrawn and 
a declaration to that effect shall be made by the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works, without subsequent appeal. 

After the deposit has been made the contract will be signed and 
made public in the "Diario Oficial," the date of publication being the 
point o f reckoning for all periods named in the document, unless other- 
wise specified. 

Concessions for the lines of prime importance which have not been 
granted, or which having been granted shall lapse in the future, can 
only be granted to the companies which, besides the requirements 
already expressed, shall present proof covering the following points: 

I. The existence of the company and its organization in conformity 
with the laws of the country whence the document in regard to its 
organization proceeds. This proof, if the company has been organ- 
ized in the Republic, shall be furnished by means of a certified copy 
of the draft (minuta) of the articles of association, which shall be raised 
to the rank of a public instrument in case the concession is granted; 
and if the company has been organized abroad, by the presentation of 
the documents required by article 24 of the Code of Commerce "■ and 

^Article 24 of the Code of Commerce provides that "foreign companies desirous 
of estabUshing themselves or their branch offices in the RepubUc shall present and 
file in the register's office, besides the proofs of the protocolization of their statutes, 
contracts, and other documents referring to their organization, their inventory or last 
balance sheets, if they have any, and a certificate showing that such companies have 
been duly organized and authorized in accordance with the laws of their respective 
countries. This certificate must be given by the Mexican minister residing at the 
respective places, and in his absence, by the Mexican consul. 



RAILBOAD LAW. 347 

in case the concession is granted such documents need only to be pro- 
tocolized, registered, and stamped. 

II. That the company has, either on hand or assured, the subscrip- 
tion and payment of the capital necessary for the survey of the land, 
the preparation qf plans, and the fulfillment of the obligations set 
forth in the law. 

If the proposition is accepted, the procedure shall be as stated above, 
but the deposits shall be at the rate of $200 per kilometer in securities 
of the consolidated public debt. 

The construction of other lines shall be subject to bids, as provided 
by law. 

Railroad concessions carry with them the following rights: 

I. The right to construct the railroad. 

II. The right to build a telegraph and telephone line. 

III. The right to exploit the railroad and the telegraph or telephone 
line for the entire period of the concession. 

The telegraph or telephone line built under the concession can only 
be exploited for the service of the road, of passengers traveling 
thereon, and of shippers or consignees of freight on matters connected 
with their business with the road. The telegraph line can not be oper- 
ated in any other manner nor on other service, except with the authori- 
zation of the Department of Communications and Public Works, which 
at all times shall have the right to revoke the authorization granted. 

The system of traction to be used shall be set forth in the concession. 

Railroads constructed within the territory of a State and not com- 
ing under either of the classes mentioned shall, from the moment they 
join or connect with a road under the Federation, become subject to 
all Federal laws and regulations, as provided by law. 

The deposit that is made guarantees the performance of the obliga- 
tions contracted by the concessionaire, and shall be returned to him 
when all the works covered by the concession have been completed. 
Until such time as the deposit is returned, and unless it has been for- 
feited, the interest coupons shall belong and shall be delivered to the 
concessionaire. 

Concessions may be transferred wholly or in part to other companies 
or individuals, with the consent of the Department of Communications 
and Public Works, according to the provisions of the law. 

Under no circumstances can the company transfer, mortgage, or in 
any other manner dispose of a concession or any of the rights which 
it carries, or of any of the property or belongings connected with said 
line, to a foreign Government or State, and any sale, assignment, trans- 
fer, or mortgage infringing this rule shall be null and void. A com- 
pany may not allow a foreign Government or State to become a part- 
ner, and any agreement infringing this rule shall likewise be null and 
void. All shares, securities, or bonds issued by the company and 



348 MEXTCO. 

acquired by a foreign Government or State shall, from the moment of 
such acquisition, be deprived of all force and value for their holder, 
who shall forfeit to the nation all the rights attached to such shares, 
securities, or bonds. 

Concessions for railroad lines shall not be granted for a term exceed- 
ing ninety-nine years. At the close of this period the railroad, with 
all its appurtenances, shall pass, in good condition and free from all 
incumbrance, into the control of the nation; but the Government must 
purchase the rolling stock, appliances, chattels, and equipment that 
may be necessary to continue the operation of the road, paying in cash 
the price of valuation by appraisers appointed as provided by the law. 
The Government shall be entitled to the earnings of the railroad dur- 
ing the five years preceding the date of the reversion, to be employed 
for the benefit of the road in case the company fails to comply with 
the provisions regarding its transfer in good condition. 

No railroad concession implies a monopoly for the benefit of the 
concessionaire, but a stipulation may be introduced into concessions 
to the effect that within ten years no other concession shall be granted 
for a line parallel to the former, wholly or in part within a territory 
of a width to be determined on both sides of the road, or that no sub- 
sidy, exemption from taxes, or other franchises shall be allowed to 
lines for the construction of which within said territory a concession 
may be granted. 

The Executive of the Union, in compliance with this law, may at all 
times and in concert or under an agreement with the companies, add 
to, modify, or rescind existing railroad concessions. 

A concession shall lapse for any of the following reasons: 

I. Failure to commence the survey's within the time specified. 

II. Failure to construct, in a year, the number of kilometers 
required by the concession, or to complete the line within the period 
allowed by said concession. 

III. The total or partial interruption of the public service of the 
road, save in the case of fortuitous or unforeseen circumstances, as 
defined by law. 

IV. The sale of the concession or of any of the rights granted by it 
to a company or individual, without the previous consent of the 
Department of Communications and Public Works. 

V. The transfer, sale, or mortgage of the concession, or of any of 
the rights conveyed, or an}^ of the properties attached thereto, to a 
foreign Government or State, or the admission of such a partner in 
the enterprise. 

In order that the circumstance may be declared to be fortuitous, the 
company must present to the Department of Communications and Pub- 
lic Works, within three months from the occurrence, a written state- 
ment, detailing the event and showing proof thereof, as provided by 



RAILROAD LAW. 349 

the law. The Department of Communications and Public Works, in 
view of the company's statement, shall decide whether or not the con- 
cession is thereby forfeited. If the decision rendered is in favor of 
the company, an extension of time, at the discretion of the Govern- 
ment, shall be allowed in which the company may fulfill the obligations 
entailed by the concession. 

The concessionaires are entitled to enter into contracts with other 
individuals or companies for the construction of the road, but these 
contracts shall have no recognition from the nation until they are sub- 
mitted to the examination and approval of the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works. Failure to comply with this does 
not entail a forfeiture of the concession, but the constructing com- 
pany and the concessionaire shall be considered as one and the same 
for all legal purposes connected with the nation; and for all such pur- 
poses, as well as for all business appertaining to the construction of 
the road and the concession in which the nation has an interest, only 
the original concessionaire shall be recognized. 

Whenever a concession if forfeited, the concessionaire shall lose his 
deposit, which reverts to the nation. When the concession is for- 
feited for any of the causes mentioned in Paragraphs 1 and II, above, 
the company shall preserve the right of ownership of the buildings it 
may have erected, the portion of the railroad and telepragh line it may 
have built, and to the materials, machinery, and utensils employed in 
the operation of the road, according to the law. 

In the event of the public service of a railroad being interrupted, 
wholly or partially, the Department of (Communications and Public 
Works shall, at once and at the expense of the company, take steps to 
assure its continuance provisionally, as provided by this law. In the 
event of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph IV, the com- 
pany shall lose the right to operate the railroad, telegraph, and tele- 
phone line, the Government succeeding to that right and entering into 
possession of the line and its appurtenances, a receiver being appointed, 
as provided by the Code of Commerce, and the operation of the line 
continued under Government auspices. The next step will be the 
judicial sale, at public auction, of the propert}" mentioned, and the 
Executive shall determine the conditions under which the sale is to 
take place. 

In the case of forfeiture for the cause mentioned in Paragraph V, 
the company shall forfeit to the nation the portion of the road already 
constructed, but the nation will be liable for the mortgage and other 
debts contracted prior to the declaration of forfeiture, to an extent 
proportionate to the value of the property. Within six months from 
the time that the Executive takes possession of the property, it shall 
decide whether the nation shall assume the responsibility mentioned 
and undertake the administration of the road. 



850 MEXICO. 

The declaration of forfeiture shall be made through the administra- 
tive channel by the Executive, after the company has been heard, for 
which purpose it shall be allowed a specific period to give such expla- 
nation as may be deemed pertinent.' At the expiration of this period, 
the Executive shall, if deemed necessary, make further inquiries and 
announce its decision. As soon as the concession of a railroad is 
declared to have been forfeited all the privileges and exemptions 
granted by the concessions shall cease. 

A declaration of forfeiture can onl}^ be contested before the courts 
for one of the following reasons: 

I. That the reason adduced does not constitute a legal ground for a 
declaration of forfeiture. 

II. That the fact or omission adduced as a reason for forfeiture is 
not as stated. 

If the declaration of forfeiture is not contested before a competent 
court within the period of one month from its communication to the 
company, it will be assumed that the company acquiesces in the deci- 
sion of forfeiture, and no further action will be taken. 

Railroads may, in the concessions, be divided into several sections, 
so that the forfeiture of some will not affect the continuance of others, 
and each section between its terminal points must be considered as a 
separate line, to be operated independently. 

In cases where there is no ground for a declaration of forfeiture, 
but where there is sufficient ground for annulment of the concession, 
the deposit above mentioned shall be forfeited, but during the suit, 
and until the final sentence of annulment is rendered, the company 
shall continue to enjoy all the rights appertaining to it under the con- 
cession, without detriment to provisional and precautionary measures, 
when, according to law, there is occasion for them. 

As regards the nationality and legal status of companies, those whose 
object is to construct or to operate, or to construct and operate a rail- 
road, may be organized in the Mexican Republic or abroad; but under 
all circumstances such companies shall be regarded as Mexican, even 
though the entire organization is foreign. Said companies shall be 
subject to the courts of the Republic, whether Federal or local, in all 
matters coming under the jurisdiction of the courts, and foreigners 
and their successors who shall be interested either as shareholders, 
employees, or in any other capacity, shall in all cases be regarded as 
Mexicans in so far as the companies' affairs are concerned. On no 
pretext whatever raa}^ rights as foreigners be urged with respect to 
titles {titulos) and affairs connected with the companies, and only such 
rights and the means of enforcing them shall be enjoyed as are granted 
by the Mexican law to citizens of the Republic; consequently foreign 
diplomatic agents may not interfere in any way. 

Companies shall have one or more attorneys in the capital of the 



RAILROAD LAW. 351 

Republic, who shall be empowered to deal with the Federal authori- 
ties and other public officers in all matters relating to the concessions, 
but the headquarters of all companies shall be at the town named in 
the concessions, this, however, not preventing the establishment of 
agencies in different parts of the country or abroad. 

In cases when the board of directors of railroad companies reside 
abroad, a local board, resident at the headquarters of the company 
within t\ie Republic, or at such place as shall be designated in the 
concession, shall be appointed, which board shall be regarded as part 
of the board of directors. 

For the issuance of shares and bonds, the following rules shall be 
observed: 

I. After the plans and profiles have been drawn up, an estimate shall 
be made on the cost of the entire work. 

II. On the basis of that estimate and of the rights of the concession- 
aire, the capital in shares and bonds shall be determined with the 
approval of the Government. 

III. The provisions of the foregoing paragraph do not prevent, 
pending the preparation of the estimates, the issuance of shares and 
bonds or the acquisition of funds by any other means for the construc- 
tion of the road. 

IV. The amount of the capital in shares and bonds rriay be increased, 
even after the preparation of the estimate and after the capital has 
been fixed, provided that the necessities of construction or operation 
require it. 

V. The right to issue shares and bonds does not imply that by these 
means alone the company may obtain funds, as to that end all legal 
methods may be employed. 

VI. The company is obliged to inform the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works of all the steps taken and all the 
contracts entered into pursuant to the rights conferred on it by this 
article. 

All contracts entered into abroad are subject to the laws of the 
Republic, as provided by this law. Contracts for the acquisition of 
material for the equipment of the railroad and rolling stock are 
subject to special regulations. 

Railroads, being works of public utility, are in consequence entitled 
to condemn (expropriate) land and construction material belonging to 
private individuals which may be necessary for the establishment and 
repair of the road and its appurtenances, stations, and other annexes. 
This, however, does not include the right of condemnation of water 
rights, without special authorization in each case by the Executive. 
The process of condemnation is subject to certain regulations, as 
prescribed by the law. 

In the matter of franchises and exemptions granted to concession- 



852 MEXICO. 

aires, the law provides that foreign capital employed in the construc- 
tion and operation of railways, and the loans contracted for that pur- 
pose, be placed under the sj-uardianship of the nation and are exempt 
from reprisal, confiscations, and attachments in case of war. The 
capital and property of a railroad company shall be exempt from all 
Federal and local taxation save the stamp tax, provided they are 
applied directly to the purposes set forth in the concession. The stamp 
tax applies only to the documents, acts, contracts, and transactions to 
which the company is a party. The general routes of communication, 
their appurtenances, the capital, shares, bonds, etc., emploj^ed, shall 
at no time be taxable by the States of the Federation. 

A company may import, free of all import and custom dues, all 
fixed material for the line, rolling stock, telegraphic materials, cars, 
etc., necessary in the construction and operation of the line, also for 
maintenance and repairs of the railroad and telegraph line, for a period 
not exceeding five years, said articles also being exempt from all taxes, 
whether Federal or local, for a like period. If any of these materials 
shall be sold or applied to other uses, the Department of Finance shall 
exact the payment of the duties, subject to the provisions of the law. 

The lines of prime importance may be subsidized; and in certain 
cases, as provided by law, other lines also. Subsidies shall be subject 
to the following rules: 

I. No subsidies for the construction of railroads shall be granted 
when the paj^ment of said subsidies can not be covered by the budget 
appropriations available for that purpose, except in the cases pro- 
vided by law. 

II. The subsidy shall be paid with respect to sections of at least 
100 kilometers, constructed and accepted by the Department of Com- 
munications and Public Works, in the amount and according to the 
conditions to be determined in each particular case, except that if 
when the line is completed its last section measures less than 100 
kilometers the amount appertaining to that section shall be paid upon 
its completion. 

III. The subsidy shall be paid in bonds of the public debt, the 
Executive reserving the right of deciding in each case in which of the 
two following forms pa^^ment is to be effected: 

(a) In 5 per cent bonds of the redeemable debt. 

(b) In bonds of other descriptions, according to the conditions and 
terms to be determined. 

Land belonging to the nation and needed by the company shall, 
with the approval of the Executive, be made over to the company 
without any payment whatever. The company shall also be entitled, 
under the same conditions, to take from lands belonging to the nation 
and from its rivers, all materials that may be necessary for the con- 
struction, operation, and repair of the road and its appurtenances, but 



RAILROAD LAW. 353 

in taking- out such material the company is subject to the laws and 
regulations bearing upon the case. 

If the road terminal be at a seaport the company shall be entitled to 
build one or more wharves, subject to the rules and conditions deter- 
mined in the concession. Deposits and other mineral substances which, 
according to the mining law, do not belong to the owner of the soil, 
and which ma}^ be found during the construction of a railroad, shall 
be the propierty of the company, provided it is denounced within three 
months from the date of discovery. 

Officials and emploj'-ees of railroad lines are exempt from military 
service, except in case of foreign war. 

Railroads shall be constructed in accordance with the provisions of 
the railway ordinances now in force or to be issued in the future. 

The polic}^ of a road, as expressed in its laws and regulations, shall 
provide suitable measures for its maintenance and safety, but no rail- 
road can be put into operation without having been previously inspected 
as provided by the ordinances, and accepted by the Department of 
Communications and Public Works. 

The tariffs of railroad transportation shall include the rates for which 
transportation shall be effected, and the conditions according to which 
companies bind themselves to perform this service according to the 
provisions of the law. General regulations governing the transport 
of passengers and freight, and the liability of railroad companies for 
possible damages sustained thereby, are fully covered by Chapter VII 
of the law. In return for the concession to construct railroads the 
nation reserves certain privileges or rights, touching reduced tariff 
rates for the transportation of colonists and immigrants, employees, 
agents, and officials traveling on public business; for the transporta- 
tion of troops, ammunition, etc. ; the transmission of telegraph mes- 
sages; the free transport of mail and mail officials; the use of special 
trains at any time, and certain other privileges as set forth in the law. 

On all railroads the Executive possesses the right of inspection, 
exercised either directly b}^ means of the Department of Communi- 
cations and Public Works or by means of special agents. 

Any infringement of this law is punishable by a fine of from $20 to 
$2,000 and imprisonment, according to the circumstances of the case. 

The law also defines what is considered a crime or a fraud against 
property and prescribes the consequent penalties. 

The railroads dependent on the Federation are subject exclusively 
to the Federal powers, the legislative, executive, and judicial branches 
having each their respective jurisdictions. Questions which may 
arise concerning the interpretation or fulfillment of concessions or of 
any of the stipulations contained therein, shall be decided by compe- 
tent tribunals of the Republic and by the civil code of the Federal 
District. 

509a— 04 23 



354 MEXICO. 

TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. 

The great difference in the relative cost of construction of telegraph 
and railway lines may undoubtedly be considered as the reason of the 
more extended development of the former means of communication. 
In 1877, Federal telegraph lines measured 7,927 kilometers; in 1892, 
35,500 kilometers had been built, while in 1896, a network of lines 
45,000 kilometers in length traversed the Republic under Govern- 
ment control. At the present time there is not a State capital nor 
any fairly important town which does not enjoy the benefit of tele- 
graphic communication with the outside world. 

In Mexico, this branch of public service is divided into four classes: 
Federal telegraph lines, railroad telegraphs, lines belonging to pri- 
vate parties, and those which are State property. On June 1, 1891, 
the Federal service was organized into 20 districts (sonas), each under 
the immediate supervision of an inspector, the total number of offices 
being 280 and the extent of lines 29,305 kilometers. About the same 
time the Government purchased the Jalisco line, 2,514 kilometers in 
extent, making a total of 31,819 kilometers. On December 31, 1902, 
according to the latest available official data, Mexico had 21 Federal 
telegraphic belts besides the Federal District, with 405 offices and a 
total length of line measuring 50,125 kilometers, the entire telegraph 
system at that time being as follows: 

Kilometers. 

Federal lines 50,125.000 

State lines 5, 708. 968 

Private lines 3, 942. 725 

Railroad lines 12,036.000 

Total 71,812.693 

These figures also embrace 13 Federal telephone lines, measuring 
326.22 kilometers. There are 740 kilometers of Federal cable. 

In his message to the Mexican Congress, President Diaz, under date 
April 1, 1903, makes the following statement in regard to telegraphic 
development: 

"Telegraphic correspondence has continued to increase daily with 
very favorable pecuniary results. In the first half of the present 
fiscal year not only was the progressive increase in earnings main- 
tained, but it exceeded expectations in a ver}^ gratifying manner. 
This increase in business has led to the adoption of certain special 
measures by the Executive, chief among which ma}^ be mentioned the 
laying of a federal submarine cable in the Gulf of Mexico. Six new 
telegraph offices have been opened and 434 kilometers of new line 
strung, one of which was erected for the purpose of placing the impor- 
tant mining camp of Cananea in rapid communication with the rest of 
the countr3^ The question of wireless telegraphy has also received 
serious attention. Two stations of the system that so far has produced 



TELEGRAPH LINES. 



:55 



phe best results in Europe were purchased, one being erected near 
Guaymas, Sonora, and the other at Santa Rosalia, Lower California. 
ISufficiently satisfactory experiments have been made with them. In 
order to facilitate telegraphic communication with foreign countries, 
the Mexican system has been connected with that of the United States 
at Eagle Pass, thus giving four telegraphic connections along the 
jnorthern border of the Republic. In the interior the use of the long- 
idistance telephone has been encouraged and developed, and for this 
purpose contracts have been made for the operation of this service in 
combination with private concerns." 

lu a similar document of later date, September 16, 1903, the same 
authority states: "With respect to the overhead telegraphs, 600 kilo- 
meters of new lines in various directions have been strung and four 
Inew offices have been opened. 

\ "The experiments in wireless telegraphy between Guaymas and 
Santa Rosalia produced results which, though inferior to those obtained 
|by ordinary systems, were sufficiently acceptable to induce the Gov- 
ernment to utilize the new method of communication for a portion of 
its official service and even to throw it open to the public on trial. 

" The telegrams dispatched during last fiscal year exceeded 3,000,000, 
and the cash returns from this source were 20 per cent more than 
those of the preceding period. " 

State lines. — The State telegraph lines in 1902 were as follows, 
according to Mexican official data: 



Number 


Total 


of 


length 


offices. 


(kilometers). 


4 


200.000 


5 


50.400 


2 


16.760 


38 


1,003.000 


8 


293.800 


20 


1,190.030 


9 


195. 845 


/ 


266. 000 


8 


217. 000 


3 


134.080 


2 


50.000 


6 


332.000 


2 


153.000 


5 


140. 000 


34 


1,467.053 



Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Mexico 

Michoacdn 

Morelos 

Oaxaca 

San Luis'Potosi : 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tamaulipas 

Territory of Lower California 

Yucatdn 

Zacatecas 



Total. 



5, 708. 968 



Private lines. — The number of private lines for the same period was 
22, with 28 offices, measuring in all 1,018 kilometers 393 meters, while 
the cable lines comprised 2,925 kilometers 832 meters, as follows: 
Submarine cable: Meters. 

Tampico to Galveston 791, 783 

Tampico to Veracruz 395, 891 

Veracruz to Coatzacoalcos 207, 601 

SalinaCruz to La Libertad 698,442 

2, 093, 717 



356 MEXICO. 

Land line: Meters. 

Mexico to Veracruz 429, 687 

Coatzacoalcos to Salina Cruz 402, 328 

832, 015 

Total 2, 925, 832 

The railroad telegraph lines were divided as follows: 

Kilometers. 

Ferrocarril Mexicano de Veracruz 517 

Ferrocarril Nacional de Mexico 1, 441 

Ferrocarril Central Mexicano 4, 574 

Ferrocarril Internacional Mexicano • 1, 441 

Ferrocarril ]Mexicano del Sur 447 

Ferrocarril Interoceanico 1, 022 

Ferrocarril Mexico, Cuernavaca y Pacifico 293 

Ferrocarril Mexicano del Norte 125 

Ferrocarril Nacional de Tehuantepec 414 

Ferrocarril de Veracruz a Alvarado 70 

Ferrocarril de Sonora 431 

Ferrocarril de la Compania Constructora Nacional Mexicana 119 

Ferrocarril de Vanegas, Cedral, Matehuala y Rio Verde 66 

Ferrocarril de San Marcos a Tecolutla 126 

Ferrocarril de Chihuahua al Pacifico 200 

Ferrocarril de Tlacotepec d Huajuapan 70 

Ferrocarril de Toluca A Tenango 30 

Ferrocarril de Esperanza al Xuchil 25 

Ferrocarril de Guanajuato d Dolores Hidalgo y San Luis de la Paz 48 

Ferrocarril de Coahuila a Zacatecas 126 

Ferrocarril de Ixtlahuaca A Mafii 35 

Ferrocarril de Rio Grande, Sierra Madre y Pacifico 250 

Ferrocarril del Gazadero a Solis 36 

Ferrocarril de Sierra Pinta A la bahia de San Jorge 19 

Ferrocarril de Tenango d Santa JNIaria 5 

Ferrocarril de Naco A Cananea 64 

Ferrocarril de San Bartolo y Rio Verde 42 

Total 12, 036 

Of late years the Federal Government has leased certain linesr of its 
telegraph system to 20 different States, thereby saving the operating 
expenses of the lines without detriment to the public service. 

The Republic is connected b}^ telegraph with both Guatemala and 
the United States, and in December, 1897, the President of Mexico 
approved and proclaimed a contract between his Government and the 
Western Union Telegraph Company and the Mexican Telegraph (cable) 
Company, both of which are American corporations, whereby commu- 
nication by wire between Mexico and foreign countries is to be carried 
on solely by means of the Federal telegraph system, in connection with 
those of the companies named. By the terms of the contract the 
Mexican Telegraph Company binds itself to pay to the Mexican Gov- 
ernment 15 per cent of its annual profits, derived both from land and 
cable lines, it being further guaranteed by the company that said 15 



MAIL SERVICE. 



357 



per cent shall not amount to less than $20,000 gold per annum during 
the term of the contract. 

The number of telegraphic messages sent annually has steadily 
increased from 1,101,916 in 1891-92 to 1,865,303 in 1897, and to 
2,866,146 in 1902, there being 1,976,406 private and 889,740 official 
telegrams sent over all lines during the year. 

Telephones. — Telephone service throughout the countr}^ is excellent 
and daily improving. On December 31, 1902, according to the 
"Anuario Estadistico," for the same period, the total extent of the 
State and railroad telephonic system measured 40,657 kilometers 490 
meters, divided as follows: 

Meters. 

State lines '. 38,918,719 

Kailroad lines - 1, 738, 771 

MAIL SERVICE. 

The Mexican Government has spared no effort to add, in every way 
possible, to the efficiency of the postal service of the Republic, and at 
times this has been a very onerous task. In 1885 the Government 
was confronted with a large disproportion between the receipts and 
expenditures in the service, being indebted in large amounts to pub- 
lishers of periodicals,*^ mail cfontrac.tors, and to nations with which 
Mexico had accounts connected with the transport of mail matter. 
These debts have all been paid up and the service is to-day in a flourish- 
ing condition, and, though not a source of revenue to the treasury, is at 
least able to pay its own expenses. 

Prior to 1877 there were throughout the entire Republic but 53 
central and 269 branch post-offices; in 1887 the number had risen to 
313 and 685, respectively; in 1894, to 483 and 974; in 1895, to 476 and 
974. In 1897 the service was represented by 523 central stations, 1,091 
branch offices, and 19 substations, and in the year 1902 b}'^ 2,207 post- 
offices, as follows: Central stations, 694; branch offices, 36, and 1,477 
substations. 

The compilation of regular postal statistics in the Republic dates 
from 1893-94, the basis of which was the postal movement of a month 
of 28 days multiplied by 13, the result not giving correct figures. 
Mexican figures show that the number of pieces of mail matter handled 
by the postal authorities of the country amounted in 1878-79 to 
5,992,611; in 1888-89, to 27,429,081; in 1892, to 122,821,359, while in 
1894-95 the number is given as 24,773,636 only. This apparent fall- 
ing ofl:' is due to the fact that in the years preceding 1894-95 the entire 
postal movement, that is, mail matter received and sent out, was 
included in the estimate, while for the latter period only such matter 
as was sent out was,reckoned. 

« Under the Mexican regulations postmasters act as collectors of subscriptions and 
advertising bills, etc., due the publishers of newspapers. 



358 MEXICO. 

From 1897 to 1902 the movement of mail matter of all kinds has 
been as follows: 

Pieces. 

1897-98 112,840,890 

1898-99 129, 555, 561 

1899-1900 134, 631, 009 

1900-1901 148, 086, 513 

1901-2 156, 518, 498 

President Diaz in his message to Congress April 1, 1903, makes the 
following statement in regard to the postal service: 

"During the first half of the present fiscal year 5 local post-offices, 
37 agencies, 1 branch office, and 4 ambulatory offices were created, 
giving a total of 2,254 offices. The circulation of postal matter of all 
kinds amounted to 77,000,000 pieces, against 74,000,000 pieces during- 
the same period of the previous year. The interior postal drafts 
issued totaled $19,000,000, against $16,000,000 in the corresponding- 
period of the previous year. The service of international drafts with 
the United States totaled $457,000 Mexican. Drafts collected and 
paid to publishers amounted to $213,000, against $211,000 during the 
corresponding period of the preceding year. The general earnings of 
the post-office were $1,320,000, against $1,156,000 during the corre- 
sponding period of the previous year." 

The operations of the mail service during the fiscal year 1902-.3, 
compared with the preceding fiscal year 1901-2, are reported by the 
Postmaster-General of Mexico to have been as follows: 



Sale of postage stamps 

Rent of postal boxes 

Fines and forfeitures 

Premiums on post-office money orders: 

Interior 

International 

Premiums on editors' drafts 

Total 



, 319, 563. 08 
69, 703. 00 
33, 912. 18 

200, 912. 55 
3, 378. 47 
30, 995. 12 



2, 718, 464. 38 



2,053,593.29 
60,604.00 
26, 169. 31 

219,390.31 
3,687.01 
30,716.39 



2,394,159.31 



Mexico was a party signatory to the Universal Postal Convention 
of Paris on June 1, 1878, and has since entered into conventions and 
parcel-post agreements with several nations, among others the United 
States, Germany, France, Great Britain, and Ireland. 



STEAMSHIP LINES. 



Prior to 1877 Mexico mav be said to have been isolated so far as 
activity in maritime commerce or communication was concerned, but 
since that time the Mexican Government has given great impetus to 
sea transportation by granting subsidies and special concessions tc^ 
companies and individuals. 



STEAMSHIP LINES. 359 

Up to 1896, 21 steamship lines had contracts with the Government 
for carrying the mails, of which 10 were Mexican, 4 American, 4 Eng- 
lish, 1 Spanish, 1 French, and 1 German. Eight of these lines enjoy 
subsidies ranging from 175 to $2,000 for the round trip, or from $6,600 
to 115,000 per annum. The other lines enjoy certain privileges and 
exemptions. 

Latest official statistics (1902) report the following steamship lines 
as under contract with the Government to perform postal service: 

The New Yorh and Cuba Steamshvp Company {American). — This 
company has no subvention, but enjoys special exemptions. The 
steamers are required, under the terms of the contract, to make 52 
regular trips to and from Progreso, New York, Veracruz, Tuxpam, 
Tampico, Frontera, Alvarado, Campeche, Coatzacoalcos, and Laguna. 

The German Imperial Mall {German). — This line enjoys special 
exemptions and is required to make at least 2 monthly trips to and 
from Hamburg, Havre, Veracruz, Tampico, Progreso, and other ports. 

Ha,rrison Line {English). — This line enjoys special exemptions and 
is required to make at least 2 trips per month to and from Liverpool 
and Veracruz, with the privilege of stopping, on either trip, at Tam- 
pico, Tuxpam, Frontera, Campeche, and Progreso; also, at Barbados, 
St. Thomas, Trinidad, La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Curasao, Santa 
Marta, Sabanilla, Cartagena, Port au Prince, Kingston, Colon, and 
New Orleans. 

Munson Line {American). — This line enjoys special exemptions and 
is required to make at least 2 round trips per month to and from New 
York, Philadelphia, or any other port of the United States on the 
Atlantic coast, and Tampico, Veracruz, and Progreso, with stops on 
either trip at other Mexican ports. 

West India and Pacific Steamship Company {English). — This line 
enjoys special exemptions, making 2 trips per month with the same 
itinerary as the Harrison Line. 

Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Stea^nship Company {American). — 
This line enjoys special exemptions, and is required to make at least 2 
trips per month to and from either Mobile or Pensacola and Mexican 
Gulf ports. 

Campania de Nawegacion en los Rios Grijalva^ Usum.acinta and Pali- 
zada {Mexican). — This line has a subsidy of $9,000 per annum and is 
required to make 36 trips per year on the rivers named. 

Compania Mexicana de Navegacion., 8. A. {Mexican). — This line 
enjoys special exemptions and makes several trips per month between 
Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Frontera, Laguna, Campeche, Progreso, and 
to Tampico and intermediate points. 

Compania Industrial de Transportes {Mexican). — This line receives 
a subsidy of $6,000 per annum, and is under obligation to make 6 
monthly trips on the rivers Gonzalez and Mezcalapa. 



360 MEXICO. 

Pacific Mail Steamship Company {American). — This line enjoys 
special exemptions and is required to make 3 monthly trips. It con- 
nects all the ports of the Pacific coast of Mexico with San Francisco 
on the north, with Central American ports on the south, and also con- 
nects with a New York service via Colon. 

Compania de Navegaciofi del Pacifico {Mexican). — This line receives 
a subsid}'- of $3,500 per round trip, being required to make 18 trips 
yearly between Guaymas, La Paz, Altata, Mazatlan, San Bias, Man- 
zanillo, Acapulco, Puerto Angel, Salina Cruz, Tonala, San Benito, and 
other service. 

Lower California Development Company {Mexican). — This line 
receives a subsidy of $150 per round trip during the continuance of 
the contract and is required to make 72 trips per year between San 
Diego, Todos Santos, and San Quintin. 

Pacific Coast Steamship Company {American). — This line also enjoys 
special exemptions, the service required being at least 1 monthly trip 
between San Francisco, Cal., and Guaymas, touching at Ensenada de 
Todos Santos, Bahia de la Magdalena, San Jose del Cabo, Mazatlan, 
and La Paz. 

Compania JVamera del Pacifico {Mexican). — This company consists 
of three different lines, one required to make 48 trips per annum 
between Guaymas, La Paz, and Emeka and intermediate points, receiv- 
ing for this service a subsidy of $18,000 per annum; another line 
receiving a yearly subsidy amounting to $5,857 for 4 round monthly 
trips between Mazatlan, Altata, and Topolobampo, and another line 
making 36 trips per year between Guaymas, Santa Rosalia, Mulege, 
Loreto, and La Paz, receiving for this service $7,200 per annum. 

Compania Inglesa de Nanegacion por vapores en el Pacifico y Sud- 
Americana de Vapores {English and Chilean), — Receives a subsidy of 
$20,000 per annum, being required to touch at certain ports at least 
once or twice a month, as agreed. 

Compania de Navegacion en los rios Grijalva, Chilapa y Tidija 
{Mexican). — This line is required to make 3 monthly trips between 
Frontera, Tepetitan, and Pavo Real, receiving for this service a subsidy 
of $2,880 per annum. 

Mexican- American {American)., from New Orleans to Veracruz, and 
Tampico. This line is required to make 24 trips a year, enjoying for 
the service special exemptions. 

Kosmos Line {German). — This line enjoys special exemptions, the 
service required being 12 yearly trips from Hamburg and other Euro- 
pean and South and Central American ports. 

Compania Limitada de los Ferrocari'iles de Veracruz {Mexican). — 
Has a subsidy of $6,732 per annum, the service required being 312 
trips a year between Alvarado and Chocaltianguis, 104 between Alva- 



STEAMSHIP LINES. 361 

rado and San Juan Evangelista, and 166 between Alvarado and Alonso 
Lazarro, touching at intermediate ports. 

- There are, besides, other important lines which ply in Mexican 
waters, but enjoy no privileges whatever. Among these lines are the 
Morgan Line (American), the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company 
(English), the Hamburg-American Packet Company (German), and 
Spanish and French lines. 

A great number of concessions have been granted by the Govern- 
ment to companies purposing to establish new steamship lines on both 
coasts, all of which promise to add greatly to the efficiency of the 
service between the ports on their respective itineraries. 



CHAPTER XV. 

PUBLIC LAZ^TDS— COLONIZATION AND LBOHGIIATION LAWS. 

Mexico may be divided into three regions, which the "Mexican 
Financial Review*" calls, respectively, the hacierida country, the piithlo 
country, and the free country. 

The first-named or farming country comprises the greater part of 
the central plateau, many of the tempemte valleys situated on the 
slopes or terraces of this plateau, nearly all of the Gulf coast, and 
many points on the Pacific. 

The pueblo or community holdings lie toward the southern part of 
the country. 

The free country or public lands, so called because of the fact that 
few if any haciend<is or pueblos exist there, is situated in the north of 
the Republic. 

As regards the central plateau, it is really marvelous that its lands 
retain their fertility, considering their great productiveness for hun- 
dreds of years. The only way this can be accounted for is that the 
system of irrigation there in vogue yearly resupplies the soil with 
natural fertilizing matter. 

Previous to the conquest this very land had to provide food for at 
least twice the existing population of the country, and was producing 
for more than six centuries unceasingly and without fertilizers. 
Strange, indeed, then, that it has not become sterile. But it is said 
that the day is fast approaching when the fecundity of this soil will 
vanish. Dryness and barrenness are already becoming evident in cer- 
tain portions of the table-lands: but irrigation companies are being 
organized steadily, and will undoubtedly prevent this undesirable 
tendency. 

The almost virgin land, and that which invites the energetic arm of 
the careful husbandman, lies on the east and on the west, toward the 
coasts, and when railroads shall have united one and the other points 
many fertile valleys will be in a position to yield two and three crops 
a year. 

The free or public lands are situated mostly in parts of the States 
of Chihuahua. Coahuila. Durango. Sinaloa. and Sonora. Immense 
tracts are here almost uninhabited, and in the western SieiTa Madre 

362 



PUBLIC LANDS. 



363 



the plains reach down to the Tropics. These lands were formerly set- 
tled upon by religious orders, or were held by officers of the Spanish 
Crown. After the war of independence and the escheating to the 
State of ecclesiastical holdings they became public lands, and are what 
are now called teri'enos haldios. The nation, under laws to that effect 
enacted on July 20, 1863, and March 26, 1894, is having these lands 
surve3''ed and measured, giving to the companies doing the surveying 
one-third of the land surveyed, and disposing of the rest, some gratui- 
tously to towns as commons, and to private parties and companies at 
fixed rates. Some 28,211,607 acres have thus been disposed of since 
1867 up to December 31, 1895, and the Government still retains in the 
neighborhood of 25,000,000 acres. For the lands sold the public treas- 
xxYj has received $2,508,849.04 up to the date mentioned. From July 1 
to December 31, 1897, there were public lands sold in eight States, under 
the two laws referred to, to the extent of 90,858.67 acres, producing 
$30,755.13. 

The following table from Mexican official statistics shows extent, 
value, and number of titles of public lands issued by the Government 
from 1898 to 1902: 



Number 
of titles 
issued. 



Hectares. Ares 



Value. 



Grants of public lands 

Sale of national lands 

Titles issued to colonists 

Titles issued under certain agreements 

As compensation for surveying expenses 

Gratuitous grants to townships, etc 

Grants covering excedencias, demaslas, etc 

Gratuitous grants, as provided in act Nov. 27, 1896 
Subsidies granted to railway companies 

Total 



556 

283 

56 

40 

4,350 

69 

253 

1 



6,276 



579, 

1,231, 

5, 

408, 

173, 

48, 

497, 

47, 

71, 



3, 064, 401 



1365, 880. 20 

1, 308, 508. 90 

19, 120. 09 

141,943.66 



69 1,835,452.85 



The following statement shows the extent of Government lands sold 
and the price from January 1 to June 30, 1903: 



state. 


Land 
sold. 


Price. 


Coahuila 


Hectares. 

1,912 

450 

2,804 

15,357 

77 

2,855 

2,691 

2,725 

35 


1637. 64 


Chiapas . . 


150. 27 


Chihuahua 


224. 34 


Durango . 


11, 262. 08 


Sinaloa 


51.77 


Tabasco 


3, 428. 06 


Tamaulipas 


2, 048. 03 


YucatAri 


2, 306. 11 


Zacatecas 


52.04 








Total... 


28,934 


20,160.34 





364 MEXICO. 

LAND LAW. 

The general land law of Mexico was originall}^ promulgated on 
March 26, 1894, the regulations governing its application bearing date 
of June 5 and October 1 of the same year. 

Under this law Government lands are divided into four classes, as 
follows: 

1. Terrenos haldios (public lands) are all lands in the Republic not 
devoted to public use by the proper authorities, nor by them con- 
veyed, gratuitously or otherwise, to private individuals or corpora- 
tions, according to law. 

2. Demasias (excess holdings) are the lands in possession of private 
individuals in excess of the area determined by the boundaries estab- 
lished by the original grant, when such holdings lie within said bound- 
aries, being a part of the whole grant. 

3. Excedencias (outside possessions) are lands possessed by private 
individuals for twenty or more years, lying beyond the boundaries 
established by the original grant, but adjoining the land under such 
grant. 

4. Terrenos nacionales (national lands) are the unallotted public or 
vacant lands surveyed by official commissions or by duly authorized 
corporations, or public lands denounced by private individuals who 
have subsequently abandoned their claims, or when such claims have 
not been granted, provided the land has been actuall}^ surveyed. 

In general terms the law provides that all residents in the Republic 
of legal age and contractural capacity have the right to denounce or 
preempt public land in any part thereof to am unlimited extent, except 
natives or naturalized citizens of bordering nations, who can not 
through any title acquire land in any State or Territory bordering on 
their country. The privilege hereby granted in nowise repeals the 
limitations of laws now or hereafter to be enacted relating to the 
acquisition of real estate by aliens. 

The Executive shall establish, by decree to be published in January 
of each year, the schedule of prices of public lands in each State, the 
Federal District, and the Territories. This schedule shall remain in 
force during the fiscal year next succeeding its publication. 

The following lands can not be alienated through any title whatsoever: 

1. The seashore, 

2. The shore lines extending 20 meters back of high-water mark 
along the coasts of the mainland and islands. 

3. A strip 10 meters wide along each bank of navigable rivers and 
5 meters wide along the banks of smaller streams capable of floating 
any marketable substance. 

4. Lands having monumental ruins, together with the ground that 
may be declared necessary for their care and preservation. 



LAND LAW. 365 

The Department of Promotion (Fomento) is authorized to enter into 
contracts for the exploitation of public lands or to lease said lands 
while no claims or denouncements are pending, and to issue proper 
rules and regulations for the cutting of timber or the development of 
such land products, establishing penalties for the violation of said 
rules and regulations. 

Lessees or contractors for public lands may be granted the right to 
acquire said lands at a certain rate, in case third parties should file 
claims for grants covering the lands in question. This right is to be 
enforced within thirty days after the denouncement or claim is filed, 
the lessees or contractors being under obligation, should they acquire 
the land, to reimburse the claimant for all surveying and other 
expenses connected with the filing of the denouncement. 

Licenseis granted for the exploitation of public lands expire upon 
the final grant of the land to a denouncer or claimant. 

The denouncing of public lands must be made before the agent of 
the Department of Promotion within whose jurisdiction the land is 
situated. 

Within fifteen days after the filing of the necessary petition, the 
agent must investigate whether the land has been surveyed or is 
reserved for forests, colonies, or settlement of Indians, or otherwise. 

Every denouncement must be published in the ofiice of the agent, 
the official paper of the State, District, or Territory where the land is 
situated, at the expense of the denouncer, at whose expense also the 
survey of the land is to be made by an expert engineer to be named 
by him with the approval of the agent. 

The survey and the plat of the land having been made and no pro- 
test having been filed, the agent will make copies of the record and 
plat and transmit the same to the Department of Promotion, through 
the governor of the State in question, for inspection. 

Should the Department find the record, plat, etc., unobjectionable, 
it will adjudicate the land in favor of the denouncer and notify him to 
pay the price thereof. 

This price is that fixed by the schedule in force at the time the 
denouncement is made, and must be paid within two months after 
notification. If this term should expire without proof of the payment 
having been received at the Department, the denouncer loses the rights 
he may have acquired; otherwise the patent will be delivered to him. 

Should any protest be interposed, the matter will be carried to the 
court of the district within whose jurisdiction the land is situated, to 
try the issues. In such suits the district attorney will represent the 
Government. Suits of this character act as a stay of air administrative 
action until final judgment is delivered. 

Under the law, as given in substance above, the Secretary of Pro- 
motion publishes every year the prices at which Government lands 



366 



MEXICO. 



may be purchased. In pursuance thereof the prices for such lands for 
the year 1904-6 have been published. The following table gives the 
price per hectare (2.4Y1 acres): 



state or Territory. 



Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Durango 

Guanajuato ... 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoac&n 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon... 
Oaxaca 



Price. 



52.20 
2.25 
3.00 
1.20 
1.10 
1.10 
1.20 
2.20 
1.20 
2.50 
2.20 
2.75 
4.40 
3.00 
1.10 
1.20 



State or Territory. 



Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San LuisPotosi. 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacateeas 

Federal District 

Territory of Tepic 

Territory of Lower California . 
Territory of Quintana Roo 



"«" 



Price. 



83.30 
2.20 
2.50 
1.20 
1.30 
3.60 
1.20 
2.20 
2.75 
2.20 
2.20 
6.10 
2.50 
.70 
.50 



The price is not payable in cash but in bonds of the national debt, 
the value of which varies from time to time, the tendency for the past 
three years being decidedly upward. 

COLONIZATION. 

Mexico has made sacrifices to induce people to its shores, but its 
efforts in this behalf have not caused any considerable influx of for- 
eigners to the country. Mexicans attribute this state of things to two 
causes, viz, the fact that free land is situated at a considerable distance 
from means of communica^tion, and that the country is not so devoid 
of native population as is generally supposed. The Indian lives on 
ver}^ little and can therefore afford to work for such paltry wages that 
foreign immigrants can not compete with him. When the general 
state of the country shall be such as to create a voluntary current of 
immigration, it is confidently believed that the Republic will reap the 
reward of its sacrifices, for it is a country where the immigrant, 
under the colonization laws, has the smallest amount of taxes to pay. 

The first steps taken in the direction of inducing aliens to seek 
Mexico's fertile fields date back to 1827. In the year 1821 a law was 
enacted entitled "Prosperidad General" (general prosperity), in which 
special reference is made to the rapid growth of the foreign colony in 
the State of Texas. In the year 1846 the then Minister of Foreign 
Affairs, Jose M. Laf ragua, presented a plan for legislation to Congress 
in which, inter alia, he spoke of "the neglect of colonization as a 
crime of high treason," and held out the flattering but delusive hope 
of establishing innumerable colonies to contain at least 50,000 persons. 
During the imperial period Senor Robles submitted to Congress plans 
of the same sort, as did also Senor Balcarcel in 1868, and Senor Riva 
Palacio in 1877; but up to 1882 no really serious practical efforts were 
made to attract immigration, and the results obtained up to the pres- 
ent are comparatively insignificant. 



LEGISLATION. 367 

COLONIZATION LAW. 

The colonization law now in force was enacted and promulgated on 
the 15th day of December, 1883. It comprises four chapters and thirty- 
one articles, the former being entitled, respectively, "Of the survey 
of lands;" "Of colonists;" "Of companies;" "General provisions." 

The provisions of this law are, in substance, as follows: 

For the purpose of securing lands suitable to the establishment of 
colonies, the Executive will cause the waste or Government lands in 
the Republic to be surveyed, measured, subdivided, and appraised, 
appointing to this end the corps of engineers he maj^ deem necessary, 
and determining the methods to be followed. 

No subdivision shall in any case exceed 2,500 hectares (about 6,177 
acres) in extent, this being the greatest amount of land which shall be 
conveyed to any one individual of lawful age and legal capacity. 

The lands surveyed,, measured, subdivided, and appraised may be 
conveyed to foreign immigrants and inhabitants of the Republic who 
may desire to establish themselves thereon as colonists, under the 
following conditions: 

(1) By purchase, at the price set by the engineers and approved by 
the Department of .Promotion, payable in ten years in equal install- 
ments, the first becoming due two years after the establishment of the 
colony. 

(2) By purchase, the price *being paid on entry, or in installments on 
shorter time than that provided in the preceding section. 

(3) By gratuitous concession, when requested by the colonist; but 
in this case no cession shall exceed 100 hectares, (about 247 acres), and 
the colonist shall receive no title to the same until he shall have shown 
that he has retained the land in his possession, and has wholly culti- 
vated it, or to an extent not less than one-tenth of the whole for five 
consecutive j^ears. 

So soon as there shall be lands suitable for colonization under the 
conditions herein provided, the Executive shall determine which should 
be settled at once, publishing the plats thereof and the prices at which 
they shall be sold, endeavoring in every case that the sale or gratui- 
tous conveyance shall be of alternate sections. The remaining sec- 
tions shall be reserved to be sold under the conditions prescribed by 
the law when they shall be sought, or when the Executive shall so 
determine, the Executive being empowered to mortgage them for the 
purpose of raising funds which, added to the proceeds of the sale of 
sections of land, shall be exclusively destined to the carrying out of 
colonization. 

To be considered as a colonist and to be entitled to the privileges 
conferred by this law it is necessary that the colonist, in case he is a 
foreigner, shall come to the Republic provided with the certificate of 



368 MEXICO. 

the consular or immigration agent, issued at the request of the said 
immigrant, or of the company or corporation authorized by the 
Executive to bring colonists to the Republic 

Should the petitioner reside in the Republic, he must apply to the 
Department of Promotion, or to the agents authorized by the said 
Department to admit colonists to the colonies, which shall be established 
in the Republic. 

In every case petitioners must present certificates of the proper 
authorities setting forth their good character and their occupation 
previous to petitioning for admission as colonists. 

Colonists settling in the Republic shall enjoy for the period of ten 
years, counting from the date of their establishment, the following 
privileges: 

(1) Exemption from military service. 

(2) Exemption from all taxes except municipal. 

(3) Exemption from all import or domestic duties on articles of 
consumption not produced in the country, agricultural implements, 
tools, machines, outfits, building materials, household furniture, and 
animals for breeding purposes, and thoroughbreds for the use of the 
colonies. 

(4) Exemption, personal and nontransferable, from export duties 
on the products of cultivation. 

(5) Premiums on praiseworthy productions, and prizes and special 
protection for the introduction of new agricultural interests or 
industries. 

(6) Exemption from fees for the certification of signatures and issu- 
ing of passports delivered by consular agents to parties coming to the 
Republic as colonists by virtue of contracts entered into between the 
Government and any company or companies. 

The Department of Promotion shall determine the number and kind 
of articles which in each case shall be admitted free of duties, and the 
Finance Department shall regulate the manner of admission to prevent 
fraud and smuggling, but without retarding the prompt dispatch of the 
said articles. 

Colonists settling on lands barren of trees, and who shall prove, two 
years previous to the lapse of the period of exemption, that on a por- 
tion of their section, which shall not be less than one-tenth thereof, 
they have laid out trees to a number proportionate to the land planted 
on, shall be exempt from taxes on the whole land for one year longer, 
and, in general, shall have exemption for one year further for each 
tenth part of their land so laid out. 

The colonies shall be established under the municipal jurisdiction, 
subject, as regards the election of their authorities and the levying of 
taxes, to the general laws of the Republic and the laws of the State 
wherein they are established. The Department of Promotion may. 



! COLONIZATION LAW. 369 

, however, appoint agents in said colonies for the purpose of better 
I directing their labors and exacting the payment of the amounts which 
I ma}'' be due to the Federation for any titles conveyed. 

Colonists are required to carry out their contracts with the Federal 
Government, or with the individuals or companies transporting or 
establishing them in the Republic. 

Ever}^ alien immigrant settling in a colony shall, at the time of such 
settlement, declare before the Federal colonization agent, notary, or 
proper judicial officer, whether he proposes to retain his nationality, 
or desires to embrace Mexican citizenship, conceded him by the third 
section of article 30 of the Constitution of the Republic. 

Colonists shall be vested with all the rights and obligations which 
to Mexican and foreigners, under like circumstances, are conceded and 
imposed by the Federal Constitution, besides the temporary exemp- 
tions conceded by this law; but all questions arising, of whatever 
character, shall be subject to the decisions of the courts of the Repub- 
lic, to the absolute exclusion of all foreign intervention. 

Colonists abandoning, without due cause, for more than a year, the 
lands which shall have been sold them shall forfeit the right to said 
lands and the amounts they may have paid therefor. 

The right to a gratuitous title shall be forfeited by abandonment of 
the land or failure to cultivate it for more than six months without 
good cause. 

One section shall be ceded without cost, in localities designed by 
the Federal Government for new settlements, to Mexican or foreign 
colonists desiring to found the same; but they shall not acquire the 
title to said section until the}^ shall show that within two years from 
the foundation of the settlement they have erected thereon a house, 
forfeiting the right to said title in case of failure to so build. It is 
the purpose to cede such sections alternately. 

The Executive is empowered to aid colonists or immigrants, within 
the appropriations to that effect made, whenever he shall deem it 
advisable, by furnishing them expenses of transportation for them- 
selves and their baggage b}^ sea and in the interior to the terminus of 
the railroad lines; he ma}^ further furnish them with free subsistence 
for fifteen days, and no more, in the localities he may approve, and 
also with tools, seeds, building materials, and animals for work and 
breeding; these latter advances, however, shall be repaid in the same 
manner as the price of the lands. 

The Executive may authorize companies to open up {habilitar) waste 
lands b}^ measuring, surveying, subdividing into sections, appraising 
and describing the same, and to transport colonists and establish them 
on said lands. 

For the purpose of i)btaining the necessary authorization, companies 
shall designate the waste lands VaQj propose to occupy, their approx;i- 
509a— 04 24 



370 MEXICO. 

mate extent, and the number of colonists to be settled upon them within 
a given time. 

' The proceedings incident to the demarcation or survey shall be 
authorized by the district judge within whose jurisdiction the waste 
land to be surveyed is situated, which done, and there being no adverse 
claimant, the recoi'd will be delivered to the company to be presented 
to the Department of Promotion, where the other formalities demanded 
by this law must be complied with. Should an adverse claimant present 
himself the case will be tried as hereinafter provided, the representa- 
tive of the Federal Treasury being a party thereto. 

In return for the expenses incurred by the companies in opening up 
waste lands, the Executive may cede them not more than one-third of 
the land thus opened up, or its value in mone}'', but under the express 
conditions that they are not to convey such lands so conceded to foreigners 
not authorized to acquire them, nor in greater quantities than 2,500 
hectares, under pain of losing, in each case, the portions of land so 
conveyed in violation of said conditions, which portions shall at once 
become the property of the nation. 

Lands surveyed b}^ the companies, excepting such as may be ceded 
to tne same in return for expenses incurred in opening them up, shall 
be. conveyed to colonists, or be reserved under the conditions before 
mentioned. 

Any authority conferred by the Executive for opening up waste 
lands shall be void and nonextendible whenever work thereon shall not 
have been commenced within the term of three months. 

The Executive may contract with companies or corporations for the 
introduction into the Republic and the establishment therein of foreign 
colonists or immigrants under the following conditions: 

(1) The companies shall fix the exact time within which they will 
introduce a determined number of colonists. 

(2) The colonists or immigrants shall fulfill the conditions hereinbe- 
fore prescribed, 

(3) The bases of the contracts the companies may make with the 
colonies shall conform to the provisions of this law, and shall be sub- 
mitted for approval to the Department of Promotion. 

(4) The companies must guarantee to the satisfaction of the Execu- 
tive the carrying out of the obligations assumed in their contracts, 
which contracts must name the causes in which forfeiture and fines 
shall be imposed. 

Companies contracting with the Executive for the transportation 
to the Republic and settling therein of foreign colonists shall enjoy, 
foi a term not to exceed twenty years, the privileges and exemptions 
following: 

(1) The sale on long time and at low price of waste or Government 
lands for the exclusive purpose of colonizing the same. 



COLONIZATION LAW. 371 

(2) Exemption from taxation, except the stamp tax on capital 
invested in the enterprise. 

(3) Exemption from port dues, except such as are set aside for har- 
bor improvements, to all vessels that, on the company's account, shall 
carr}^ ten families, at least, of colonists to the Kepublic. 

(4) Exemption from import duties on tools, machines, building 
materials, and animals for work and breeding which shall be exclu- 
sively destined for an agricultural, mining, or industrial colony whose 
establishment shall have been authorized b}^ the Executive. 

(6) Premiums for each famil}^ established, and a second premium 
for each family disembarked; premiums for each Mexican family 
established in a foreign colony. 

(6) Transportation of colonists at the expense of the Government on 
subsidized steamship and railroad lines. 

Foreign colonization companies shall be considered as Mexican, 
being required to have a legal domicile in one of the cities of the 
Republic, without prejudice to their having one or more abroad, and 
they are bound to have at all times a local board of directors, and 
one or more attorneys de facto, full}" empowered to treat with the 
Executive. 

All questions arising between the Government and the companies 
shall be decided by the courts of the Republic and according to its 
laws, without any intervention whatever on the part of foreign diplo- 
matic agents. 

Private parties setting aside any portion of their lands for the pur- 
pose of colonizing them with not less than ten families of foreign 
immigrants are entitled to have the same, enjoy equal privileges and 
exemptions with the colonies established by the Federal Government 
whenever they shall conform to the conditions imposed by the Execu- 
tive to assure the success of the colony, and whenever among said 
conditions shall be one requiring said colonists to acquire, by purchase 
or cession, one section of land for cultivation. 

The Executive may provide private parties with foreign colonists by 
stipulating with them the conditions under "which they are to be 
established, and may aid them by furnishing the expenses of transpor- 
tation of said colonists. 

The colonizing of the islands in both oceans shall be done by the 
Executive, subject to the provisions of this law, the Government 
reserving on each island 50 hectares of land for public use. In case 
the island should not have the superficial area necessary for the reser- 
vation herein specified, no sale of land shall be made thereon, and 
said land may only be rented on short terms. 

Colonies established on islands shall always include Mexican families 
to a number not less than one-half of the total colonist families. 

The Executive' is authorized to acquire, by purchase or cession. 



372 



MEXICO. 



private lands, whenever he shall deem it expedient to establish colo- 
nies thereon, subject, however, to the appropriations to be made for 
this purpose. 

Local legislation. — The question of inducing aliens to settle in Mex- 
ico has awakened not only the interest of the General Government, 
but some of the State governments have given it much time and thought. 
Foremost among these is the government of the State of Veracruz. 
On the 25th of December, 1885, the legislature of this State passed a 
law founded upon that quoted on the preceding pages. This law 
authorized the governor to enter into contracts with owners of suburban 
landed property for the purpose of colonizing it under the law. All 
such owners entering into a contract are entitled to a rebate on their 
taxes at the rate of $5 for every family settling on their lands who 
shall engage in agricultural and kindred pursuits. Owners of suburban 
lands receive a premium of $5 for every 15 foreign families established 
on their lands as colonists for an uninterrupted period of three years. 
Premiums are likewise offered for every new industry established in 
such colonies, and to the colonist showing the largest area of land 
under cultivation. Many exemptions from taxes and contributions 
are granted. Ever}' colon}" of 15 or more families definitely estab- 
lished in any locality in the State is entitled to organize its own local 
police in accordance with law, and to solicit of the Government a sub- 
vention to carry out such public works as ma}'^ be deemed necessary 
in the interest of tile colon3^ 

Colonies.- — Under the general law of the General Government 34 
colonies had been founded up to October 19, 1897. The colonies, 
their names, location, etc., as furnished by the Bureau of Statistics of 
the Mexican Republic under the above date, here follow: 

Colonies founded by the Federal Government. 





Location. 


Number of colonists. 


Name of colony. 


District, etc. 


State. 


Mexi- 
cans. 


For- 
eigners. 


Total. 


Porflrio Diaz 


Juarez 




294 11 

8 437 

21 81 

46 378 

283 63 
21 89 

112 

210 

1,218 

208 

128 


305 


Fernandez Leal 


Cholula 


Puebla 


445 


Carlos Pacheco 


Tlatlauquitepec 


do 


102 


Manuel Gonzalez 


Huatusco 




424 


Diez Gutierrez 


Ciudad del Maiz 


San Luis Potosi 

Federal District 


346 




Municipality of Mexico 

Tenancingo 


110 




112 


Tecate 


Distrito Korte 


Lower Calilornia 

Chihuahua . . . 


210 


La Ascension 


Bravos 


1,218 


San Pablo Hidalgo 

San Vicente Juarez 






208 


do 


do 


128 


San Rafael Zaragoza . . 


do 


. . .do. .. 


278 
40 




278 


Jlscao 






40 










Total 


2,867 


1,059 


3,926 









In 1900, the latest available statistics on the subject show that the 
colonies of Manuel Gonzalez, in Veracruz; Fernandez Leal, in Puebla, 
and La Ascension, in Chihuahua, had been created townships (pueblos), 



KEW CONCESSIOKS. 



373 



passing under control of the respective States, while Sericicultora, in 
Mexico, devoted to the cultivation of the silk worm, had been aban- 
doned by the colonists. The total number of colonists in the remain- 
ing 9 colonies founded by the Government is officially given in 1900 at 
2,818, there being 1,991 Mexicans and 196 foreigners, the largest colo- 
nies being Jiscao, with 442 colonists; Diez Gutierrez, with 329; Por- 
firio Diaz, with 280; San Rafael Zaragoza, with 278, and San Pablo 
Hidalgo, with 208. 

The colonies founded b}^ authorized companies were 20 in 1900, as 
follows: 

Founded by autliorized persons. 



Colony. 



Location. 



District, etc. 



State. 



Number of colo- 
nists. 



Mexican. ^°^^^^''- 



Total. 



Japonesa de Excuintla . 

Yalikin 

Vega San Jos6 

Puerto Morelos 

Oaxaca 

Metlaltoyuca 

Juarez 

Diaz 

Pacheco 

Dublin 

Garcia 

Chuichupa 

Carlos Pacheco 



Soconusco 

t Eastern Coast 



Chiapas . 
Yucatan . 



Moctezuma -j Sonora 

Huauchinango Puebla 



Bravos 



Romero Rubio 

Novalato 

Tlahualillo 

Ranehos Agricolas 

Progreso 

Oaf etera de Simojovel . . 
Cafetera de Soconusco. . 

Total 



j Guerrero 

do 

I Ensenada Todos San- 
tos. 

San Quintin 

Culiac^n 

Mapimi 

Monclova 

Distrito Norte 

Simojoval 

Soconusco 



Chihuahua 



.do. 
.do. 



59 



Lower California . 

do 

Sinaloa 

Durango 

Coahuila 

Tamaulipas 

Chiapas 

do 



344 
39 
678 
603 
206 
711 
112 



326 
69 
12 
18 

100 



31 



120 

344 
39 
678 
640 
206 
770 
112 



380 
70 
12 
18 

100 
6 
32 
37 



3,525 



The number of titles issued b}^ the Government to colonists in the 
Federal colonies, from January 1, 1897^ to December 31, 1901, was, 
according to official figures, 403, covering an area of 5,421 hectares, 
amounting to $21,173. 

Ifew concessions. — The latest important concession made by the Gov- 
ernment for the purpose of colonization was granted to the Blalock 
Colony Compan}^, b}^ which this organization is authorized, to establish 
on the land it owns, under the name of " El Chamal," in the municipality 
of Santa Barbara, State of Tamaulipas, an agricultural and industrial 
colon3^ According to the terms of the concession the compan}^ binds 
itself to settle upon the Chamal estate within two years from the date 
of the promulgation of the concession, at least 100 families of colonists, 
whose members in the aggregate shall not be less than 250 persons. 
These colonists shall settle upon alternate lots, leaving a lot of 10 hec- 
tares between settlers, so that the Mexican Government may on its 
own account establish in the intervening lots colonists of Mexican 
nationality, who will be entitled to acquire land at the same price 



374 MEXICO. 

charged to the compan3^'s colonists, the only condition being that the 
persons thus settled*shali be peaceable and law-abiding people. For 
purposes of colonization a " famil}^" will be understood to be: 

"A husband and wife, with or without children. 

"A father or mother, with one or more descendents, subject to 
parental authority. 

"Brothers and sisters, one being of age and the other or others 
minors." 

The company binds itself to sell or give to each famil}^ one or more 
of the plots for cultivation, as well as a site for a residence, the plot 
to be of a minimum area of 10 hectares, and the residence site will 
have a minimum area of 2,000 meters. The company binds itself 
to deliver to the head of each famil}'- a provisional title deed to the 
plot of land for cultivation and the house site assigned to him, said 
head of a family being obliged to cultivate the former for five years in 
order to obtain the title deed in fee simple. In the event of the colo- 
nist preferring to pay to the company the price of the land, the company 
may at once execute the deed of sale without the limitation above 
referred to. For each of the families required to be established by 
the concession, and which the company fails to so establish, the com- 
pan}^ will pay a fine of 100 pesos in bonds of the public debt. 

In accordance with the provisions of article 7 of the law of coloniza- 
tion in force, the colonists settled by the concessionaire company will 
enjoy for ten years, counted from the date of the settlement of each 
family, the following franchises: 

Exemption from military service; exemption from all kinds of taxes, 
with the exception of municipal taxes and the stamp tax; personal and 
untransferable exemption from import duties on agricultural imple- 
ments, tools and fixtures, machinery, building materials for houses, 
furniture in use, animals for draft and breeding purposes, all destined 
for the colony, the importation of the animals being subject to the 
provisions contained in the circulars of the Department of Promotion, 
June 9, 1893; personal and untransferable exemption from export 
duties on products raised b}^ the colonists, and exemption from the 
fees on the legalization of signatures, and the issuance of passports 
made out by consular agents to individuals coming to Mexico to join 
the colony. The duration of the concession will be ten years from the 
date of its promulgation. 

Another important contract has been made b}^ the "East Coast of 
Yucatan Colonization Company," for the establishment in the Terri- 
tory of Quintana Roo, from 50 to 150 families. 

For the purposes of the contract, a "family" will be considered to 
be a household in which there is at least one able-bodied male worker. 
The compan}^ will grant to the colonists free passage to the lands, an 
advance of from $10 to $20 gold, a dwelling, agricultural implements, 



NEW CONCESSIONS. 375 

a team of oxen, and other domestic animals and fowls, as specified. 
The colonists will also be furnished with articles of general consump- 
tion at equitable prices, and firewood may be cut from the forests, 
reservation, however, being made in the case of cabinet woods. Free 
medicine will also be supplied in case of illness on the part of the 
colonists. The colonists will engage in tropical agriculture, but, in 
addition to cultivating and improving their own tracts, they ma}'^ 
also work for the company for wages that can not be less than $1 
(Mexican) per daj^ 

Contracts have been made during the first half of the fiscal year 
1903-4, for colonization in land in the State of Chihuahua, and the 
settlement of Boer families. Efforts are being made to settle Porto 
Rican families in Tabasco and on the Gulf coast, according to President 
Diaz's message to Congress, April 1, 1904. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

EDUCATION— RELIGION— PROTESTANT MISSIONS. 

Education in Mexico has been for many year>s the subject of serious 
consideration on the part of the Government, on account of the diffi- 
cult)'' experienced in combating the conservative ideas prevailing in 
tlie Republic. The main obstacles have, however, been overcome, and 
the country to-day enjoys the benefit of a liberal system of education, 
which is administered under three branches — gratuitous, lay, and obli- 
gatory. Laws have been enacted, normal schools for both sexes have 
been established, and in order to still further extend the benefits to be 
derived from a uniform educational system throughout the whole 
country, the Government convoked the various States for a National 
Congress of Education. The labors of this congress resulted in the 
grading of educational facilities from primary or children's schools to 
higher grades and special institutions of learning; the preparation of 
general plans of study for all grades; the division of the subjects 
taught into annual courses; also provided for the unrestricted selection 
of the latest and most improved methods of instruction suitable to each 
grade; and, in short, for the examination and choice of whatever sys- 
tems, ^either technical or administrative, which might be deemed suita- 
ble to the ends for which the congress was convened. 

The Executive at that time laid before Congress the plan of a reform 
of the law of March 21, 1891, placing elemental tuition under the care 
of municipalities and obliging them to establish at least one school for 
each 4,000 inhabitants. This law obtained the approval of Congress, 
and by virtue thereof the municipal schools of the Federal district 
and of the Territories came under Federal jurisdiction. The superior 
board of primary education (Direccion Superior de Instruccion Pri- 
maria) was also created for the reorganization, superintendence, and 
management of said institutions. 

Legislation. — The law making education compulsory was promul- 
gated March 23, 1888, but its enforcement was not decreed at that time, 
and the first Congress of Public Education was convened for the purpose 
of adopting such measures as should tend to establish an efiicient and 
uniform system of education. This congress met on December 1, 1889, 
and closed its sessions on March 31, 1890, after having passed on and 
approved 124 questions, the principal being the establishment of a 
national system of popular education based on the uniformity of obli- 
gatory, gratuitous, and laical primary education, children from 6 to 12 
376 



LAW OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 377 

years of age to be given an elementary primary education embracing 
four courses or scholastic years. The general programme for elemental 
primary obligatory education embraces practical morals, civic or laical 
instruction, the national language (including writing and reading), 
object lessons, arithmetic, the principles of physical and natural sci- 
ences, geography, history of the country, practical notions of geometry, 
drawing, singing, gymnastics, and for girls, sewing, etc. Resolu- 
tions were passed relating to rural schools, itinerant teachers, kinder- 
gartens, etc., and it was declared indispensable that education for 
adults should be provided for in cases where persons had been unable 
to receive instruction during childhood. Education was also declared , 
compulsor}^ in soldiers' barracks, jails, penitentiaries, and institutions 
of correction. Superior primary education was declared compulsory 
for students desiring to enter preparatory and professional schools 
which did not exact a secondary education, the period required for 
this branch being two years. Several other measures of similar import 
were also passed. 

A second congress was convened on December 1, 1890, which solved 
certain problems on compulsory elemental education, fixed the methods 
to be followed in the schools of superior primary education, and set- 
tled matters pertaining to normal schools, preparatory education, and 
special schools. As a result of this congress, the law of March 21, 
1891, was enacted, regulating compulsory education in the Federal 
district and the Territories of Tepic and lower California, which law 
became effective on Januarj^ 17, 1892. 

The primary schools previously supported by the Government were 
those which were under the care of the Compaiiia Lancasteriana, which, 
since 1822, had been working earnestly and unceasingly for gratuitous 
public education. The methods employed, though formerl}'- excellent, 
had become obsolete, and by the act of March 29, 1890, the Govern- 
ment resolved to bring these schools directly under the protection and 
jurisdiction of the nation. They were consequently placed under the 
supervision of the Department of Justice and Public Education, the 
Treasury being ordered to take charge of all buildings and moneys 
used in the maintenance of the institutions, as they were in reality the 
property of the Republic. 

Law of public instruction. — On May 19, 1896, the law of public 
education was promulgated, its salient points being as follows: 

Official priaiary elemental education in the Federal district and 
Federal Territories was placed under the exclusive control of the 
Executive; primary superior education was organized as an interme- 
diate educational system between elementar}'- and preparatory instruc- 
tion. A general board of primary education was created, charged to 
develop and maintain the same under a scientific and administrative 
plan. Preparatory education was decreed to be uniform for all pro- 



378 



MEXICO. 



fessions, its extent being limited to the study of such matters as are 
necessaiy to the development of the physical and intellectual faculties 
and the morals of youth, it being further directed that professional 
education be reorganized, limiting it to technical matters Avhich per- 
tain to the profession or professions to which each particular school 
is devoted. 

By virtue of this law public education ceased to be in charge of the 

board of aldermen (ayuntamientos) of the above-mentioned sections. 

At the time of its promulgation the municipality of Mexico contained 

113 schools supported b}" the board of aldermen, 14,246 students being 

♦entered on the rolls with an average attendance of 9,798. 

Each State defrays the expenses of public education, either with 
funds speciall}^ appropriated for that purpose or with the municipal 
funds. 

Institutions. — In 1876 there were throughout the country 8,165 
primar}^ schools, with 368,7.54 students of both sexes. In 1895 Gov- 
ernment schools reached the number of 4,056, of which 2,189 were for 
males, 1,119 for females, and 748 for both sexes; municipal schools 
numbered 3,394 — for males, 1,754; females, 932; both sexes, 708. 
These comprised 7,380 primary, 32 secondarj^, and 35 professional 
schools, the number of students enrolled being 310,496 males and 
181,484 females (a total of 491,980), and the mean attendance 338,066. 
The total cost to the Government and the municipalities for the main- 
tenance of these institutions was 13,973,738. In the same year private 
schools to the number of 1,816 were being conducted, 659 for males, 
460 for females, and the remainder under a coeducational system. In 
addition, 276 were supported by the clergy and 146 by associations, 
the total number of students enrolled being 68,879, of which 40,135 
were males and 28,744 females. The total number of private schools 
was accordingly 2,238, of which 2,193 were devoted to primary edu- 
cation, 34 to secondary instruction, and 11 to professions. 

The total number of schools in 1900 and 1901 and the average attend- 
ance are shown in the following- table: 



I Schools. 



Federal and municipal institutions. 

Primary 

Secondary and preparatory 

Professional 

Private institutions. 

Supported by the clergy 

Supported by associations 

Private schools 

Grand total 



1900. 



Total. 



,363 
41 
60 



493 

152 

2,068 



12, 177 



Average 
attend- 
ance. 



479, 785 
5,405 
5,337 



608, 070 



Total. 



9,491 
42 
62 



477 

173 

1,995 



Average 
attend- 
ance. 



477, 586 
5,484 
6,624 



124, 257 



613,951 



iNSTITtTTIOlSrS. 



379 



Official figures for 1902 show the following data: 



Shools. 



Male. 



Female. 



Mixed. 



Total. 



Average 
attend- 
ance. 



Federal, State, and municipal institutions. 

Primary 

Secondary and preparatory 

Professional 

Private institutions. 

Supported by the clergy 

Supported by associations 

Private schools 

Total 



4,856 
30 
30 



346 
56 
618 



•2, 499 

n 

11 



256 

64 

413 



1,924 
5 
12 



103 

56 
278 



9,279 
46 
63 



702 

176 

1,579 



498,616 
5,808 
4,672 



122, 161 



5,936 



3, 2.54 



2,378 



11,835 



631,257 



The State of Mexico is not represented in the "Anuario Estadistico" 
for 1902, used in the compilation of the above table, but for statistical 
purposes the figures corresponding to the year 1901 have been added. 

The number of students enrolled in the Federal, State, and municipal 
schools was, for the primary schools, 415,197 males and 244,162 
females, or a total of 659,359; secondar}^ and preparatory schools, 
5,044 males, 2,303 females, total, 7,347; and in the professional insti- 
tutions, 6,640 males and 2,434 females, giving a total of 9,074, making 
a grand total of 675,780 scholars for the Government schools. Tho.se 
enrolled in the private institutions were 83,830 males and 66,117 
females, or a total of 149,947, thus showing that the total number of 
scholars enrolled in all the educational institutions of the country in 
1902 amounted to 825,727. 

The expen.ses connected with the branch of the Government service 
during the same j^ear amounted to $6,595,000, in round numbers, 
there being 15,229 employees, including superintendents, principals, 
and teachers of both sexes. 

In addition to the normal and primary schools, the Government also 
supports many other institutions, among which the principal are the 
following: School of jurisprudence, school of medicine, school of agri- 
culture and veterinary instruction, school of engineers, school of fine 
arts, school of arts and trades for men, and a similar institution for 
women; school of commerce and administration. National conservatory 
of music, preparatory school, schools for the blind, for deaf-mutes, 
reform schools, naval and military schools, etc., besides 22 museums 
and 61 libraries, containing from 500 to 180,000 volumes. 

In his last message to Congress, April 1, 1904, President Diaz 
makes the following statements with reference to education: 

"The last school census, taken at the end of 1902, shows that in the 
Federal District there were 54,052 children of school age, and 15,700 
in the Territories. The Government has at present 498 schools, of 
which 337 are in the Federal District, 103 in the Territory of Tepic, 
45 in Lower California, and 13 in Quintana Eoo. 



380 MEXICO. 

"The Government makes constant efforts to improve the standard 
of education and to enforce the precept of compulsory education. 
Last year 8,000 parents or guardians were fined for neglect, after 
being admonished once to send to school the minors for whose educa- 
tion they are responsible." 

The Government has sent to New York, to study the best systems 
of manual training, a special commissioner to gather information and 
all necessary data to develop manual training in Mexico. A dental 
faculty has been created for the lirst time. 

Museums. — There are throughout the country 37 museums, 8 devoted 
to archaeology and antiquities, 8 to natural histor}^; 3 medical museums, 
one each devoted to physical science, geology and mineralogy, agri- 
culture, industries, and commerce, and 13 to miscellaneous objects. 

Lihraries. — The total number of libraries is 124, the principal being 
the Biblioteca Nacional in Mexico City, with 180,000 volumes; Biblio- 
teca Publica de Guadalajara, State of Jalisco, 53,000; Biblioteca del 
Seminario, Morelia, Michoacan, 32,000; Biblioteca Palafoxiana, 
Puebla, 27,000; Biblioteca Lafragua, Puebla, 24,000, and Biblioteca del 
Colegio del Estado, Guanajuato, 21,000. 

Scientific and Literary Associations. — The number of these institu- 
tions on December 31, 1902, was 44, of which 15 were supported by 
the Government. 

Puhlications. — Official statistics show that there are 477 newspapers 
printed in the Republic, as follows: In the Federal District, 146; in 
Jalisco, 44; in Michoacan, 31; in Tamaulipas, 23; in Veracruz, 23; in 
Chihuahua, 21; in Puebla, 18; in Guanajuato, 18; in Yucatan, 16; in 
Coahuila, 16; in Sonora, 14; in Sinaloa, 11; in Durango, 11; in San 
Luis Potosi, 9; in Nuevo Leon, 9; in Colima, 8; in Zacatecas, 7; in 
the State of Mexico, 6; in Oaxaca, 6; in Aguascalientes, 5; in Lower 
California, 5; in Hidalgo, 4; in Tlascala, 3; in Campeche, 3; in Gue- 
rrero, 3; in Morelos, 3; and in Chiapas, 1. This gives a measure of 
the progress attained by the different States of the Republic. Of these 
only 139 are considered first-class publications, as follows: In the 
Federal District, 57; in Jalisco, 5; in Michoacan, 3; in Tamaulipas, 2; 
in Veracruz, 5; in Chihuahua, 7; in Puebla, 2; in Guanajuato, 1; in 
Yucatan, 8; in Coahuila, 6; in Sonora, 7; in Sinaloa, 7; in Durango, 
3; in Aguascalientes, 1; in Hidalgo, 1; in Guerrero, 1; in Tabasco, 1; 
in Campeche, 1; in Guerrero, 1; and in Morelos, 1. 

The number of publications entered in the Mexican post-office dur- 
ing 1902 was 273, divided as follows: Two hundred and sixty printed 
in Spanish, 7 in English, 4 English and Spanish^ and 2 Italian. There 
were 20 dail}^ papers, 147 weeklies, 39 monthlies, 35 fortnightly, 9 
biweekl}^, 1 quarterly, and 22 published at different times. As regards 
the character of these publications the division is as follows: Three 



RELIGION. 381 

official, 61 political, 21 religious, 26 scientific, 53 literary, 61 general 
information, 12 commercial, 22 artistic, 4 musical, and 9 miscellaneous. 

RELIGION. 

Roman Catholic Church. — The prevailing religion in Mexico is the 
Roman Catholic, the church being governed by a number of arch- 
bishops and bishops. The foundation of the church in the countrj^ may 
be said to date back to 1517, in which j^ear Yucatan was discovered by 
Don Francisco Hernandez de Cordova, a rich Cuban merchant. Cor- 
dova, with 110 Spaniards, reached Cape Catoche during April of 1517, 
and soon gave battle to the inhabitants, killing 15 and capturing 2. 
The invaders were accompanied by a priest named Alonzo Gonzales, a 
native of Santo Domingo, who during the engagement carried from 
a heathen temple the idols therein preserved and, the fight ended, 
made the temple a Christian church, dedicating it under the invocation 
of Nxiestra Senora de los Remedios (Our Lady of Succor), the patron 
saint of the Spaniards. The two captives, named Melchor and Julian, 
were purged of their sins, baptized, and made Christians, becoming 
the first converts of the New World. 

Pope Leo X, by bull of January 27, 1518, created the bishopric of 
Yucatan, appointing to the see the Dominican Fray Julian Garces, at 
the time bishop of Cuba, but he never entered his diocese, owing to 
the Spanish conquest extending at the time into Mexico, and operations 
in Yucatan being abandoned. On October 13, 1525, Pope Clement 
VII appointed Garces to the newly created see of Puebla, under the 
ofiicial title of bishop of Puebla, Yucatan, Chiapas, and Oaxaca. 

The first bishop of Mexico, with the title of bishop-elect and pro- 
tector of the Indians, was Fray Juan de Zumarraga. This f unctionar}^ 
destroyed many of the ancient picture writings of the Aztecs. He 
arrived in Veracruz in December, 1528, and was made bishop of Mexico, 
sufi'ragan to the archbishop of Seville, by bull of September 2, 1530. 
In 1545 the Mexican bishopric was made independent, and by bull of 
January 31, 1545, it was erected into an archbishopric, with bishop 
Zumarraga as archbishop. In the year 1571 the archbishop of Mexico 
was made primate of New Spain, and on March 16, 1863, Pius IX 
divided the Mexican church into three archdioceses. These were the 
eastern, or that of Mexico; the central, or that of Michoacan; and the 
western, or that of Guadalajara. The various bishoprics of Mexico 
are suffragan to these archbishoprics. 

The Holy Office of the Inquisition founded its first tribunal in the 
City of Mexico in the year 1571, with Don Pedro Moya de Contreras 
as Inquisitor-general of New Spain, Guatemala, and the Philippine 
Islands. The first burning place in the City of Mexico was situated 
near the church of San Diego, upon land now included in the Ala- 



382 



MEXICO. 



meda. The first auto-da-fe took place in 1574, when twenty-one per- 
sons were incinerated for the cause of religion. 

On May 31, 1820, the inquisition was suppressed forever in Mexico. 
The last auto-da-fe took place on November 26, 1815, the accused 
being- the patriot Morelos, who, having been turned over to the secu- 
lar authorities, was shot on December 22, 1815. 

The finest edifices in the Republic were erected by the Roman Catho- 
lics, and it is estimated that up to 1859 one-third of the real and per- 
sonal property was owned by the church . The cathedrals and churches, 
convents and monasteries, were solidly, massively built, and the inte- 
riors of the cathedrals and churches were magnificently decorated, 
gold and silver being lavishly employed in embelishing them. 

The three orders of the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits were 
the most prominent in firmly fixing the power of Spain in Mexico and 
fostering learning in the land, but the absorption of so considerable a 
portion of the wealth of the colony and the blocking of the channels 
of trade consequent on the locking up of capital brought about the 
suppression of religious orders in the Republic. The Jesuits were 
finally expelled from the country in 1856, and all the remaining orders 
had been abolished on Mexican territory by December 27, 1860, through 
the efforts of the liberal forces headed by Juarez. The laws of 
reform incorporated into the Federal constitution December 14, 1874, 
suppressed the last remaining female religious establishments — the 
Sisters of Charity. 

The number of vicarages and parishes, Roman Catholic churches and 
chapels in Mexico in 1897, is given in the following table: 



Diocese. 



Archbishopric of Mexico 

Bishopric of Puebla 

Bishopric of Oaxaca 

Bishopric of Chiapas 

Bishopric of Yucatan 

Bishopric of Tabasco 

Bishopric of Tulancingo 

Bishopric of Veracruz 

Bishopric of Chilapa 

Bishopric of Tamaulipas 

Archbishopric of Michoactin 

Bishopric of San Luis Potosi 

Bishopric of Queretaro 

Bishopric of Le6n 

Bishopric of Zamora 

Archbishopric of Guadalajara 

Bishopric of Durango 

Bishopric of Linares 

Bishopric of Sonora 

Bishopric of Zacatecas 

Vicarage Apostolic of Lower California 



Total. 



Seat. 



Mexico 

Puebla 

Oaxaca 

San Cristobal 

M6rida 

San Juan Bautista. 

Tulancingo 

Jalapa 

Chilapa 

Ciudad Victoria... 

Morelia 

San Luis 

Queretaro 

Le6n 

Zamora 

Guadalajara 

Durango 

Monterey 

Culiacta 

Zacatecas 



Vicarages 
and par- 
ishes. 



203 
187 
134 
40 
84 
12 
70 
64 
75 
39 
58 
53 
29 
23 
36 
106 
45 
36 
55 
20 



1,349 



Churches 

and 
chapels. 



1,654 
2, 513 
1,000 
500 
234 
100 
400 
100 
379 
41 
300 
171 
107 
100 
100 
376 
250 
135 
200 
100 
3 



8,763 



Total. 



1,857 
2,700 
1,134 
540 
318 
112 
470 
164 
454 
80 
358 
204 
136 
123 
136 
482 
295 
171 
255 
120 
3 



10,112 



OTHER RELIGIONS. 



Independence of thought in religion ma^^ be said to have had its 
beginning in Mexico as far back as the year 1770, when Bishop Fabian, 



CHEISTIAN CHUKCH. 383 

of Puebla, under the auspices of Archbishop (afterwards Cardinal) 
Lorenzana, published his " Missa Gothica seu Mozarabica," which was 
a liturgy used in Spain by the Gothic Christians prior to the adoption 
of the Roman liturgy. Liberal ideas grew very slowly, but received 
considerable impulse when, in 1824, Mexico gained her independence 
from the mother country. Juarez and the "laws of reform" further 
invigorated these ideas, which grew more and more until about 1860, 
when the first Protestant missionary. Miss Matilde Rankin, commenced 
her labors in the Mexican field, which resulted in a short time in the 
"formation of 14 Protestant congregations. 

Christian Church. — The first movement toward the formation of a 
Christian Church distinct from the Roman Catholic which came to a 
successful issue was begun in the country in 1868, when aid was asked 
of Protestants in the United States, The aid being afi'orded, there 
was organized in 1869 in the City of Mexico what was called "The 
Church of Jesus in Mexico," which, however, was not the result of 
missionary work so much as "a spontaneous movement originating 
among members of the Roman Catholic Church " in the country who 
desired " a greater liberty of conscience, a purer worship, and a better 
church organization." 

The Rev. Henrj^ C. Riley, a clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal 
Church in the United States, went to Mexico, in 1869, and entered 
heartily into the work of "The Church of Jesus." In the same year 
the great Church of San Francisco, as well as the chapel of Balvanera, 
were purchased by the Protestants, and services were conducted therein 
in Spanish and English. 

These buildings, former]}^ Roman Catholic churches, were purchased 
at an expense of $50,000, and in addition to this, during the five years 
that the society continued in charge of the work, more than $83,000 
were expended in the support of missionaries. More than 3,000 per- 
sons connected themselves with the movement, and in 1873 the society 
deemed it expedient to transfer the work to the board of missions of the 
Protestant Episcopal Church. Subsequent to this the Reverend Doctor 
Riley was consecrated bishop of the Valley of Mexico; but in April, 
1884, after Bishop Riley's resignation, the American bishops recognized 
the Cuerpo Eclesidstico., composed of the clergy and readers, as the 
ecclesiastical authority of the Mexican Church. 

The Church of San Francisco is a historic building. It was dedi- 
cated December 8, 1716, but the original monastery and church, whose 
site this edifice occupied, was built about 1607 on lands which had 
formerly been the garden and wild-beast house of the kings of Tenoch- 
titlan. Cortes provided funds for the building of the first church, 
and material was secured in the hewn stone from the steps of the great 
Teocalli (the Aztec temple). In this church Cortes heard masses, and 
for a time his bones found a resting place. Here the Spanish viceroys, 



384 MEXICO. 

thi'ough the centuries, took part in the great festivals of the church. 
The Te Deum in celebration of Mexican independence was first echoed 
by its walls. Here the liberator, Agustin de Yturbide, worshipped, 
and here his funeral services were held when he died; and here, to-day, 
Protestant services are held. 

Three churches now stand on portions of the land covered by what 
were known formerly as the seven churches of San Francisco. They 
are the Church of Jesus; Christ Church, where the services of the 
Church of England are held, and the Methodist Episcopal Church of 
the Trinity. 

In 1891 the Mexican Church elected the presiding bishop of the 
American Church as the provisional bishop of the former, and took as 
its name " The Mexican Episcopal Church of Jesus." The general 
convention has commended the church work in Mexico, and since then 
the Mexican Church has reorganized itself, substituting for the Cuerpo 
Edesidstico a synod composed of the clergy and lay representatives 
from the congregations. It has adopted a body of canons for its gov- 
ernment and has also officers for the administration of baptism, con- 
firmation, and communion, for marriage and burial, for dail}^ morning 
and evening prayer, etc. Two men have been ordained to the priest- 
hood and seven to the deaconate. 

The Mexican Episcopal Church is no longer an American mission, 
although the contributions of American church people are supporting 
the work. 

The church has stations in several States and the Federal District, 
having a large membership. 

Presbyterian Church. — The missionary work of the Presbyterian 
Church in Mexico began in 1874 and to-day is in a flourishing condi- 
tion, having both foreign and native preachers, missionaries, churches, 
Sunday^ boarding and day schools, and a large number of commu- 
nicants, adherents, native workers and pupils in the schools. 

Methodist Episcopal Church. — The Methodist Episcopal Church 
South laid its foundation in the City of Mexico in 1873. There are 
now three mission conferences in Mexico, representing the fruits of 
unceasing toil and heroic devotion. 

This church claims that a Mexican, Sostenes Juarez, was the first 
man who held Protestant services in Mexico. That in 1865 a band of 
seven met in a room on the Calle San Jose Real, in the City of Mexico, 
and organized the first Protestant Church in Mexico. It was called 
The Society of Christian Friends. 

Data kindly furnished by the Missionary Society of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church show a very flourishing condition of afi^airs. This 
organization has in Mexico 141 congregations, 45 churches, 38 parson- 
ages, 1 theological school, 6 high schools, and 51 day schools. It 
employs 31 missionaries, 53 native preachers, and 65 teachers in its 



PROTESTANT WORK. 385 

various schocls. There are 2,908 church members, over 12,000 adher- 
ents and probationers, 70 Sunday schools with 2,900 scholars, while in 
the other schools there are 3,300 students. 

The value of the church property, parsonage, and other buildings is 
about $706,000. 

The society also maintains a publishing house which during 1902 
published Sunday school lesson papers, Iwranals, tracts, etc., to the 
number of 5,153,200 pages. 

Two distinct missionary organizations of the Baptists of the United 
States are prosecuting missionary work in Mexico independentlj' of 
each other, although the best of relations exist between them. These 
are the American Baptist Home Missionary Society and the Foreign 
Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention. 

Statistics of the Protestant work in Mexico for 1 900, kindly fur- 
nished by the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church, 
show that during the year in reference there were 210 foreign mission- 
aries, of which 130 were women; 547 native workers of both sexes; 
20,769 communicants; 17 adherents, not communicants, making a total 
of 37,769 native constituency. There were 434 substations, 148 day 
schools with 7,073 pupils, 18 higher institutions with 2,217 students, 
and 4 hospitals or dispensaries. 
509a— 04 25 



CHAPTER XVII. 

PATENT AND TRADE-MARK liAWS. 

The first patent law of Mexico was framed and issued in 1832, but 
it was not until 1886 that any remarkable activity was noted in this 
branch of development, as in the years intervening between 1832 and 
1853 not a single patent was granted. From 1854 to 1875 the entire 
number issued was only 41; from 1876 to 1885 there were 360; 102 in 
1886, and from that time until 1889 the patent grants numbered 406. 

The patent law of June 7, 1890, amended June 6, 1896, has been 
repealed by law of August 25, 1903, now in force. 

PATENT LAW. 

The new patent law of the Republic, promulgated August 25, 1903, 
contains 121 articles. The salient points of the law are the following: " 

Anyone who has made ahy new invention of an industrial character 
may acquire the exclusive right, by virtue of the provisions of articles 
28 and 85 of the Constitution, to exploit or work said invention for 
his benefit, during a certain term, under the rules and conditions pre 
scribed by law. In order to acquire this right it is necessary to obtain 
a patent of invention. 

The following are patentable: 

I. New industrial products. 

II. The application of new means in order to obtain an industrial 
product or result. 

III. The new application of known means in order to obtain an 
industrial product or result. 

The following are not patentable: 

I. A discovery or invention that simply consists in making known 
or rendering evident something which had already existed in nature, 
although it had been unknown to man before the invention. 

II. Every scientific principle or discovery of a purely speculative 
character. 

III. Every invention or discovery, the exploitation of which maj be 
contrary to the laws prohibiting same, to public safetj^ or health, and 
to good customs or morals. 

IV. Chemical products; but the new processes to obtain said prod- 
ucts, or their new industrial application, shall be patentable. 

«The full English text of the patent law and regulations was pubHshed in the 
Monthly Bulletin of this Bureau for December, 1903. 

386 



I 



PATENT LAW. 387 

An invention shall not be considered as new whenever it has been 
put in use, in the countrj- or abroad, before the application of the 
patent, for a commercial or industrial purpose, or when it has been so 
extensively published as to become of use, as in such cases it shall be 
regarded as public property. 

In the following cases the foregoing provisions shall not apply to 
the author of the invention nor to the owner of the patent obtained 
abroad: 

I. When the publicity is derived from the exhibition of the inven- 
tion in a local. State, or international exposition, oificially or unoffi- 
ciallj^ recognized, provided that before its exhibition the document 
prescribed by the regulations shall be deposited in the Patent Office 
and the proper application filed in said office within three months after 
the official closing of the exposition. 

II. When the owner of a foreign patent shall file his application for 
a Mexican patent to be issued within a period of three months from 
the date on which, in accordance with the law of the country in which 
the foreign patent was issued, the invention shall be made public. 

In case there are two or more foreign patents, the term of three 
months shall be reckoned from the date of the patent which was first 
published. 

III. Whenever the application shall be filed within the terms speci- 
fied by the international treaties relating to the matter, or within the 
twelve months to which article 12 of the law refers. 

The owner of a patent shall have the exclusive right: 

I. To exploit or work the same, for his benefit, during the time 
fixed by law, either by himself or through other persons with his 
consent. 

II. To prosecute before the courts those who infringe his patent 
rights, either because of the industrial manufacture of the patented 
article, or b}^ the industrial employment or use of the patented process 
or method, or because they may keep in their possession or offer for 
sale, sell, or introduce for a commercial purpose in the national terri- 
tory, without his consent, one or more manufactured articles. 

In the case of industrial manufacture the intent to defraud shall not 
be necessary to incur in a penal offense, although said fraudulent intent 
must exist in the other cases provided for in Section II. 

The patent shall produce no effect whatever. 

I. Against similar articles that may, in transit, pass through the 
national territory or tarry in its territorial waters. 

II. Against a third party who was already exploiting the same 
patented article in the country prior to the date on which the applica- 
tion for the patent was filed or on which he had made the necessary 
arrangements to exploit it. 

III. Against a third party who, for the purpose of making experi- 



388 MEXICO. 

ments or investigations, should construct an article or put in use a 
process equal, or substantially equal, to the patented one. 

A patent ma}^ be granted to two or more persons jointly should it 
be jointly applied for. 

Those desiring to obtain a patent shall file at the Patent Office an 
application, accompanied with the following documents: 

I. A specification. 

II. A set of claims. 

III. A drawing or drawings, should the case require it, at the dis- 
cretion of the inventor. 

IV. Two copies of the above documents. 

The Patent Office shall make an official examination of the docu- 
ments filed in order to determine if they are complete and whether 
they comply with the requisites prescribed by the proper regulations 
concerning the form thereof. 

If upon examination the Patent Office finds that said documents do 
not comply with the requirements, or that the article or thing sought 
to be patented is not patentable, it shall dismiss the petition and so 
notify the interested party. If this is not satisfactory, he maj^ appeal 
to the courts in accordance with the provisions of Chapter XII of the 
law. Should the Patent Office be satisfied with the documents filed, 
it shall so notify the interested party. 

The legal date of a patent is that of the legal filing in the Patent 
Office of the application and documents which constitute the same; 
and from that date the patent is supposed to be granted and produces 
its legal effects, except as specified above. 

The legal date of a patent solicited in Mexico, and which has already 
been applied for by the same person in one or more foreign countries, 
shall be that which corresponds to the foreign patent first solicited, 
provided that it be applied for in Mexico within twelve months from 
the date of the first application abroad, if it is a patent of invention, 
and within four months from the same date if the application is by 
means of an industrial design or model, and provided also that the 
foreign countr}^ in which it was first applied for grants this same right 
to Mexican citizens. 

Patents shall be granted without prejudice to third parties and 
without guaranteeing their novelty or utility. The concession thereof 
only gives a presumption of said qualities and of the rights of the 
owner until the contrary is proven. 

Any person other than the author of an invention applying for a 
patent must prove his authority as representative or attorney of the 
inventor by means of a letter of authorization, signed by the inventor 
or author of the invention and two witnesses. The Patent Office, 
however, reserves the right to demand the ratification of the signa- 
tures whenever it should deem it convenient to do so. 



PATENT LAW. 389 

Patents of invention are granted for a term of twenty years from 
their legal date. This term is divided into two terms, the ilr.st con- 
sisting of one year and the second of nineteen years. The tax for the 
first period, or one-year, term is 5 pesos, and for the second term 35 
pesos. The regulations shall fix the Government fees for issuing 
copies, certified copies, renewal of title deeds, etc. The term of twent}^ 
years ma}^ be extended five years longer at the discretion of the Chief 
Executive after the payment of the proper additional fees. To 
obtain this extension an application must be filed with the Patent 
Office within the first six months of the last year of the ordinary term 
of twenty years, as required by law. 

The exploitation of a patent is not obligatory, but if after three 
years from the legal date thereof said patent should not be industrially 
exploited within the national territory, or if after these three years 
the exploitation of the same shall have been suspended for more than 
three consecutive months, the Patent Office shall have the right to 
grant to third parties a license to make said exploitation. 

The owner of a patent has the right to prosecute before the courts 
as an usurper of his patent rights or as an illegal exploiter thereof the 
owner of a license granted by the Patent Office who had not commenced 
the exploitation within the term of two, months fixed by law, or who 
had suspended the exploitation during a period exceeding two con- 
secutive months, and who, notwithstanding said fact, had been exploit- 
ing said patent, except when said suspension of the exploitation had 
been caused by accident or by main force. All the products protected 
by a patent shall bear a mark to indicate the fact that the article is 
patented, as well as the number and the date of the patent. 

Patents shall be issued by the Patent Office in the name of the Presi- 
dent of the Republic and be signed by the Secretary of Fomento. 
Patents shall state: 

The number of the patent, 

The name of the person or persons to whom the same is granted; 

The term of the patent; 

The article for which it has been granted; 

Its legal date and the date of its issuance; 

And to the patents shall be affixed the special seal of the Patent 
Office. 

The patent, together with a copy of the specification, the claims, 
and drawings, should there be any, shall constitute the title deed 
which shall prove the rights of the patentee. 

The patent protects only what is contained in the claims, the speci- 
fications and drawings, if any, serving only to explain what said claims 
contain. 

The Patent Office shall publish in the "Gaceta Oficial de Patentes y 
Marcas" (Official Gazette of Patents and Trade-Marks), at least every 



390 MEXICO. 

two months, a list of the patents granted, and at least annually a 
special book containing the claims and one or more drawings of each 
patent. 

The Patent Office shall., upon request of the interested parties' con- 
cerning the novelty of a patent applied for, make an examination 
without guaranty, and report in writing the result of this examina- 
tion, which may also be made upon the request of any person, for the 
purpose of ascertaining whether the article sought to be patented has 
already been patented, or whether it has become public propert}^ in 
Mexico. 

The rights acquired by virtue of a patent may be transferred, in 
whole or in part, by any of the legal means established by law, as*in 
the case of any other right, providing it does not injure the rights of 
a third part3^ 

A patent of invention may be expropriated by the Federal Executive, 
on the ground of public utility, by causing the respective invention to 
become at once public property, after due indemnification, subject to 
the same requisites established by the law for the expropriation of 
real estate. 

In the case of invention of a new weapon, instrument of war, 
explosive, or, in general, of any improvement in machines or munitions 
of war which may be applied to the national defense, and which, in the 
opinion of the Chief Executive, should be kept as a secret of war, and 
therefore only be used by the National Government, said expropri- 
ation shall embrace not onlj^ the patent but also the invention, even 
though it may not have yet been patented. In this case said invention, 
as well as the respective patent, shall not be made public, but it 
becomes the exclusive property of the Government. 

Patents shall be considered void — 

I. At the expiration of the first term, one j^ear, if the fees of the 
second paj^ment have not been paid. 

II. Upon the expiration of the second term. 

III. Upon the expiration of the term of extension, when an exten- 
sion has been granted. 

Patents are void — 

I. Whenever they are in contravention of the provisions of law. 

II. When the claims are not sufiiciently clear and explicit, thereb}'^ 
rendering it difficult or impossible to determine what is claimed as 
new. 

III. When there is not sufficient clearness and precision in the speci- 
fication and drawings so that, in the opinion of the expert, said speci- 
fication and drawings are not sufficient, taken as a whole, to construct 
or produce what they purport to describe. ^ 

IV. Whenever the object attained b}- virtue of the patent differs 
from that sought to be obtained. 



PATENT REGULATIONS. 391 

V. Whenever another like patent has been previously granted, in 
the countr}' or abroad, though the same has been declared void. 

A patent can only be annulled by judicial authority, and then only 
by reason of any of the causes enumerated. 

The penal and civil responsibility of infringers, and the procedure 
to be observed both in criminal and civil actions, embrace 52 articles 
of the new patent law, the matter being exhaustively treated. 

In regard to patents by industrial samples or drawings, is patentable 
every new form of an industrial product, piece of machinery, tool, 
statue, bust, high or low relief, which, either by its new artistic 
arrangement or by the new arrangement of the material, constitute a 
new and original industrial product. Any new drawings used for the 
purpose of industrial ornamentation, in any substance, and arranged 
thereon by printing, painting, embroidering, knitting, sewing, mold- 
ing, casting, engraving, mosaic, inlaying, embossing, discoloration, or 
any mechanical, physical, or chemical means, in such manner as to 
give to the industrial products used in the drawings a peculiar and 
becoming appearance, shall also be patentable. 

Whenever a patent is applied for by means of an industrial sample 
or drawing, a sample or model shall be sent to the Patent Office, in 
addition to the papers or documents specified in the law and regula- 
tions. In case the drawing or drawings illustrating the drawing or 
model sought to be patented are difi&cult to copy, the Patent Office 
ma}^ accept photo-engravings or photographs. It shall also dispense 
with the mod§l or sample when the execution of the same is difficult, 
and when the drawings are sufficient to give an accurate and precise 
idea of the invention. 

Patents applied for by means of industrial drawings and models 
shall be granted for a term of five or ten years at the option of the 
applicant. These terms can not be extended. 

The fees charged for patents applied for b}^ means of industrial 
drawings or models are the following: 

I. For five years, 5 pesos. 

II. For ten years, 10 pesos. 

The above fees shall be paid in Federal revenue stamps in the man- 
ner prescribed by the regulations. 

Patents applied for by means of industrial drawings or models lapse 
when the term for which they were granted expires. All the pro- 
visions relating to patents of invention are applicable to those of 
industrial models and drawings, except as provided by law. 

This law went into force on the 1st of October, 1903. 

Regulations. — The regulations, consisting of 38 articles, were pro- 
mulgated by Executive decree of September 24, 1903, and in general 
terms provide that whoever desires to obtain a patent shall file person- 
ally, or by means of an attorney, in the Patent Office, an application 



392 MEXICO. 

accompanied by the following- documents: I. A description; II. A 
claim; 111. A drawing or drawings, if the same require it; and IV. 
Two capies of these documents. 

A receipt shall be given to the applicant of the documents presented 
stating the date and hour in which they were filed, their serial num- 
ber, and the term within which the interested party shall appear or 
present himself in the Patent Ofiice to be notified of the result of the 
examination and when to pay the required fiscal fees. Should the 
interested party fail to comply with the terms and requirements set 
forth in this receipt, the case shall be considered as abandoned. 

The application shall be made according to the models annexed to 
the regulations. When a patent is jointly applied for by several per- 
sons, there must be stated in the respective application, in the first 
place, the name of the person who represents the others, and it must 
so be set forth in the specifications. 

The specification must begin with the name of the inventor or 
inventors, profession, if he or they have an}^, nationality, domicile, 
and address in the Cit}^ of Mexico for receiving notifications; the name, 
nature, and object of the invention, with an enumeration of the 
drawings. 

After this the invention must be described in a complete, clear, 
and exact manner and as concisel}^ as possible, avoiding all kinds of 
digressions and adhering strictly to the object thereof. Under no 
pretext shall an attempt be made to give a demonstration of a mathe- 
matical, philosophical, or of any other nature whatever, concerning 
what is described or afiirmed. At the end of the specification the 
claim must be added signed by the inventor or his representative. 

The models provided for by the regulations must be strictly followed. 

The claim must define and express clearly and with all exactness the 
process, combination, or product which constitutes the invention or 
the organ or piece that forms the essential part of the invention, indi- 
cating at the same time the relation which it may have to another or 
other organs or elements which are not the direct object of the patent. 

The drawings must be made on white paper of the thickness of 
three-sheet Bristol board having a smooth and compressed surface 
approximately 380 millimeters in height by 254 millimeters in width, 
A heavy line 25 millimeters from the edg-e of the paper shall form a 
frame or body within which the drawing must be made. In the upper 
part of this frame or body and within it shall be left a blank space of 
25 millimeters approximately^ in order that the Patent Office may 
place therein the name of the invention, the serial number of the 
same, etc. The interested party shall write with a soft pencil on the 
back of the sheet the title which he has given to his invention. 

In the lower part of the body or frame, and to the right side, he 
shall sign. 



PATENT REGULATIONS. 393 

The requisites governing the drawings are set down as follows in 
the regulations: 

"(«) Preferably care should be taken so that one of the narrow sides 
of the paper remains as the upper part thereof, but if it be considered 
better to take one wide side of the paper as the upper side thereof it 
ma}^ be done. 

"(J) If a sheet is not sufficient several may be used, but in at least 
one of these the complete invention must appear. 

"(d) Only China ink and graphite shall be used, taking care that the 
ink be absolutely black. Shading should be avoided as much as possi- 
ble, and whenever the same is absolutely necessary it should be done 
with the least possible number of lines. 

"((i) It shall be assumed that the light comes from the left side 
upper angle of the paper at 45°, so that the lines formed on the side 
of the shade shall be represented heavier -than those on the side of the 
light. ■ 

' ' (e) It is preferable at all events and is specially recommended to 
present the invention in one single drawing of the largest possible size, 
in a conventional and free perspective view, without the necessity of 
being subjected to any scale, not even among the parts of one and the 
same figure, considering always that what is desired above all things is 
clearness. 

"(/") If it is considered necessary to show one or several sections, 
they must be indicated in the general drawing by means of dotted or 
dash lines, or dash and dotted lines, always taking care to mark in the 
section the reference sign or letter of the line to which it corresponds. 

"(<7) The pieces shown in section must be marked by means of 
oblique lines at least 1.5 millimeters from each other. 

"(A) The signs must be letters or numerals the size of which in no 
case shall be less than 3 millimeters. If there are places where they 
can not be put or where it is feared that they may cause confusion, 
they should be placed as near as possible and united to the point which 
they indicate by the broken or curved line. 

"(?') If in spite of this it is necessary to place a sign or letter in a 
space marked by means of oblique lines, a small circle must be left in 
blank in order to place in it the sign. 

"(_;') Whenever there are pieces or details, which in general figure 
are shown too small, they must be marked by means of onl}^ one let- 
ter or sign and present them sufficiently amplified in special figures 
marked by the same sign." 

The duplicate must be made on tracing cloth and with China ink. 

Whenever in the patents solicited by means of drawings or models, 
photographs instead of drawings are admitted, the latter and their 
duplicates shall be made precisely on blue paper or other unalterable 



394 MEXICO. 

heliograph. The paper must be of the dimensions already stated and 
a negative shall be delivered, made on a film, preferabl}^ thick. 

Drawings shall not be folded, but shall be presented stretched 
between two thick pieces of pasteboard. The indications of the draw- 
ings annexed to these regulations shall be followed in toto. 

Two or more independent inventions can not be patented in one 
single patent. 

In general terms, "Every organ or conjunction of organs which are 
susceptible of exploitation separately and the utilization of which is 
not absolutely obligatory with the machine in which they are used 
constitutes the object of an individual patent." 

A machine and its products must be the subject-matter of independ- 
ent patents, as well as a machine and the process in which it is used, 
but a process and its products may be patented only in a single patent. 

An industrial drawing and the process to obtain the same, as well as 
an industrial model and the process to obtain the same, are subject- 
matter of two independent patents. 

In all doubtful cases two or more patents should be solicited. 

If the result of the examination provided in the law and regulations 
should be satisfactory, the interested party must present to the Patent 
Office, within the term fixed in the receipt of documents, a 5-peso 
stamp bearing the seal of "Patents" (Patentes) in payment of the 
Government or fiscal fee for the first term or installment of jone year. 

Any working day during the first term of one year the interested 
party may ask for the final patent. In order to do this he must present 
in the Patent Office three 10-peso stamps with the stamp "Patents," 
and one 5-peso stamp equally stamped. 

Patents shall be inscribed in a special register or record. 

Under no pretext whatever shall it be possible to demand the return 
of documents of any kind or the fees paid in cases of forfeiture, annul- 
ment, abandonment, or when for any other motive or reason the patent 
should not be declared in force. Neither shall anyone have the right 
to demand the return of the copj^ or model that he may have delivered 
to the Patent Office. 

In case the title of ownership of a patent is lost or destroyed its 
renewal may be requested. In order to do this the interested party 
shall cause a copy of the description, claim, and drawings to be made 
at his expense, and shall pay as fees 15 pesos in stamps with the stamp 
"Patents" (Patentes), and he shall affix said stamps to the document 
that may be indicated to him, duly canceling them. The new title 
deed shall state the fact that it is a duplicate. 

The application, the description, claim, and their duplicates as well 
as all the documents, notes, etc., presented to the Patent Office shall 
be written only on one side and on paper 330 by 215 millimeters, writ- 



TEADE-MARK LAW. 395 

ten on a typewriter, in blue or dark violet fixed ink, or well printed. 
To the left a margin should be left equivalent to one-fourth the width 
of the paper. 

TRADE-MARKS." 

The trade-mark law in force was officiall}^ promulgated by Execu- 
tive decree on August 25, 1903, and contains 93 articles. The follow- 
ing are the principal provisions of the law: 

A trade-mark is the characteristic and peculiar sign or name used 
by the manufacturer, agriculturist, or merchant in the articles which 
he produces or sells for the purpose of distinguishing them and to 
indicate their origin. A trade-mark may be especially constituted by 
the names under a peculiar form, the denominations, labels, wrappers, 
packages or holders, stamps, seals, vignettes, borders, raised embroid- 
ery, filigree, engravings, coat of arms, emblems, reliefs, figures, 
mottoes, etc., it being understood, however, that this enumeration is 
simply made for the purpose of illustration, the application of trade- 
marks not being limited to said articles. 

To obtain the exclusive rights to the use of a trade-mark it is nec- 
essary to register the same in the Patent and Trade-Mark Office and 
otherwise comply with the formalities established by the law and 
regulations. 

To register a trade-mark the applicant must file with the Patent and 
Trade-mark Office an application, accompanied b}^ the following: 

I. A description of the trade-mark, containing the proper reserva- 
tions of the same. Said description shall also contain the following 
data: The name of the owner, the name of the manufactory or busi- 
ness, should he have any, the place where the latter is situated, and 
the description of the articles or products to which the trade-mark 
shall be applied. Should the interested party deem it necessary, a 
description and drawings of said articles or products may also be 
attached. 

II. Two copies of the description; 

III. A facsimile or cut of the trade-mark; and 

IV. Twelve samples of the trade-mark, exactly as the same shall be 
used. 

Any Mexican or foreigner can register a trade-mark by applying to 
the Patent and Trade-mark Office, either in person or through an 
attorney. Corporations, companies, and all other legal entities gen- 
erallj^have the same right. The representation and qualification of 
an attorney may be verified by a simple letter, serving as a power of 
attorney, signed before two witnesses, and the office may demand the 

«The full English text of the law and regulations was published in the Monthly 
Bulletin of this Bureau for December, 1903. 



396 MEXICO. 

ratification of the signatures of said letter whenever it may deem it 
convenient to do so. 

The following can not be registered as trade-marks: 

I. The names or titles, whether the trade-mark protects articles 
which are comprised in the description or kind to which the name or 
title refers, inasmuch as the essential requisite, in order that a title or 
name may serve as a trade-mark, is that it be capable of indicating 
or distinguishing the articles thus protected from other articles of 
precisely the same description or kind. 

II. Anything that is contrary to morals, good customs, or to the 
laws of the countr}^, and everything that may tend to ridicule ideas, 
persons, or articles worthy of consideration. 

III. The national coat of arms, escutcheon, and emblems. 

IV. Weapons, escutcheons, and emblems of the States of the Fed- 
eration, national or foreign cities, foreign nations and states, etc., 
without their respective consent. 

V. The names, signatures, seals, and pictures of private persons, 
without their consent. 

The registration of a trade- mark shall be renewed every twenty 
years. Delay in making said renewal shall not result in the loss of the 
rights to the exclusive use of the trade-mark, but the party thereby 
incurs an increase in the Government fees in accordance with the pro- 
visions of the regulations, and until the renewal takes place the inter- 
ested party has no right to bring a criminal action against or prosecute 
those who should improperly use or counterfeit the trade-mark. 

The registrstion of a trade-mark shall commence to be in force from 
the date on which the respective application and documents shall have 
been duly filed with the Patent and Trade-mark Office. 

A trade-mark, the registration of which is applied for in Mexico 
within four months after having been applied for in one or several 
foreign countries, shall be regarded as having been registered on the 
same date in which it was registered in the first foreign country where 
it may have been previously registered, provided that country grants 
the same right to Mexican citizens. Hence every trade-mark regis- 
tered in Mexico under these conditions shall have exactly the same 
power and shall produce the same effect as if it had been registered on 
the same day and hour in which it was registered in the first foreign 
country. 

Registered trade-marks shall bear visible inscriptions, as follows: 

Those used by manufacturers, merchants, agriculturists, etc., 
" Registered Trade-mark," or the same words written in abbreviation, 
together with the number and date of the registration. Those used 
bj'^ merchants shall read "Registered Commercial Trade-mark," or 
the same words written in abbreviation, together with the number and 
date of the registration. 



TRADE-MAEK LAW. 897 

Whenever the trade-mark consists of names, titles, inscriptions, 
monograms, or abbreviations, etc. , or when consisting of signs which 
are not letters, should bear the names, titles, etc., or monograms or 
abbreviations, the trade-mark shall necessarily bear in a conspicuous 
or visible manner the name of the owner of the industrj'^ or trade, the 
name of the business, manufactory, etc., should he have any, and the 
place where the latter is situated. 

The registration of a trade-mark shall be made without an examina- 
tion as to its novelty under the exclusive responsibility of the applicant 
and without prejudice to third parties, and such registration shall be 
I void whenever the same has been made in contravention of the pro- 
i visions of the law and the regulations, or whenjt had been previously 
f| registered by somebody else, if more than two years have elapsed since 
registration, or the two years not having yet elapsed, another had 
made the registration with a better right. 

The certificate of registration of a trade-mark shall be issued by the 
Patent and Trade-mark Office. This certificate duly legalized, together 
, with the documents attached thereto, constitutes the title which proves 
I the right to the exclusive use of the trade-mark. 

» Eegistered trade-marks can be transferred and sold or disposed of 
ji like any other right, as provided by law. The transfer shall be regis- 
1 tered in the Patent and Trade-mark Office, and without this requisite 
: it shall have no effect against a third party. The transfer of a trade- 
mark implies or carries with it the right of industrial or commercial 
exploitation of the industrial product or commercial articles protected 
by said trade-mark. 

Civil and criminal actions growing out of the infringement of the 
trade-mark law and the penalties attached thereto are fully set down 
in the act in question. 

The fees for registration and publication of trade-marks are as fol- 
lows: A fee of 5 pesos for the registration or extension of time of a 
trade-mark; a fee of one peso for the publication of a commercial 
name. 

The following fees shall be charged for the registration of a com- 
mercial advertisement: Two pesos for a five years' registration; 4 
pesos for a ten years' registration ; 4 pesos for each extension of time 
of five years. 

These fees shall be paid in internal-revenue stamps, in the form and 
manner prescribed by the regulations of this law. Said regulations 
fix the fees which the Patent and Trade-mark Office shall charge for 
other services, such as registration of transfers, change of place, 
renewals of the certificates of registration, etc., which fees are also 
paid in internal-revenue stamps. 
This law went into effect on the 1st of October, 1903, 



398 MEXICO. 

Regulations. — The regulations promulgated on September 24, 1903, 
provide in general terms that the registration of trade-marks and 
notices shall be made b}" the Patent and Trade- Mark Office at the 
request of the interested party. For each registration of trade-marks 
and notices sought to be made, a separate application shall be made, 
according to the model, provided by law. 

The Patent and Trade-Mark Office shall issue a receipt for the doc- 
uments and cliche to the interested party, stating the day and hour in 
which they were delivered and the respective serial number. The 
Patent and Trade-Mark Office shall make an official examination of the 
documents in accordance with the law. If the result of the official 
examination is satisfactory the interested party shall present to the 
Patent and Trade-Mark Office, within the term stated in the receipt 
for the documents, the stamp with the restamp " Marcas " (Marks) cor- 
responding to the payment of the fees, said stamp to be canceled on 
the document. If the applicant fails to do so within the term fixed in 
the receipt issued for the documents, it shall be understood that the 
case has been abandoned. 

If the Patent and Trade-Mark Office finds that the documents pre- 
sented are not prepared in due form, it shall make known the fact in 
writing to the interested party, so that he ma}" renew them or proceed 
in the manner indicated in article 39, Chapter III, of the law." 

The descriptions of the trade-mark, the registration of which is 
solicited, must be authorized by the signature of the interested party 
or that of his attorney, and in case said description consists of several 
pages, or folios, each folio or page must be signed on the margin. 

All applications and other documents presented for the registration 
of a trade-mark or notice shall be tj^pewritten on one side of the paper 
only, in indelible black, blue, or dark violet ink. The paper used must 
be 330 millimeters in length, 215 millimeters wide, and have a margin 
of 54 millimeters on the left side. The length or width of the cliche 
for a trade-mark or notice shall be no less than 15 millimeters and no 
more than 100 millimeters, and the height thereof must be 24 milli- 
meters. When a trade-mark is formed by several separated parts one 
cliche shall be sent for each of said pa,rts. The colors shall be indi- 
cated in the cliche as far as may be possible. The copies of the 
original trade-mark law shall be free from erasures, corrections, or 
modifications. 

« The article in reference reads as follows : 

"Art. 39. Whenever the interested parties should not be satisfied with the admin- 
istrative decisions or decrees of the Department of Promotion or with those of the 
Patent and Trade-Mark Office they may appeal within fifteen days after being 
advised of the decision to any of the District Judges of the City of Mexico, setting] 
forth the reason of their nonconformity." 



TEADE-MAEK REGULATIONS. 399 

When metal objects or other substances constitute a trade-mark or 
a part thereof, there shall be sent, in addition, twelve copies of its illus- 
tration, printed on paper, as well as when the trade-mark is to be fixed 
by means of lead seals, by fire, or by any other process. 

The certificate of registration of a trade-mark, besides the provisions 
of the law, must contain the following: 

I. Ordinal number of the trade-mark. 

II. Date and hour in which the application and annexed documents 
were presented. 

III. The name of the owner of the trade-mark. 

IV. The seal of the Patent and Trade-Mark Office. 

V. A facsimile of the registered trade-mark, 

VI. A description of said trade-mark. 

In case the certificate of registration should be lost or destroyed it 
may be renewed at the expense of the owner of the trade-mark. In 
order to do this he shall present a petition and three pesos' worth of 
stamps with the restamp "Marcas" (Marks), whichhe shall affix to the 
document indicated to him and shall cancel them thereon. In the new 
certificate shall be stated that it is a duplicate. 

To solicit the registration of the transfer of a trade-mark, a petition 
shall be made to the Patent and Trade-Mark Office, stating: 

I. The number of the registered trade-mark. 

II. The name of the former owner. 

III. The name of the trade-mark, should it have one. 

IV. The products protected by it. 

V. The name of the new owner. 

This application shall be accompanied by stamps to the value of 3 
pesos with the restamp "Marcas" (Marks), to be canceled on the docu- 
ment. With said petition shall be sent a facsimile of said trade-mark. 
In order to justify the acquisition of a trade-mark or notice, the origi- 
nal and a copy of the respective deed shall be sent. The original to 
be returned to the interested party, and the copy shall be kept as a 
part of the proceedings. 

To obtain the registration of a commercial notice, there shall l^c 
presented at the Patent and Trade-Mark Office a petition, accompanied 
by the following: 

I. A cliche of the notice. 

II. Twelve copies of the notice or advertisement just as it is going 
to be used. 

III. Twelve copies of the same notice printed on paper, when said 
notice is going to circulate, made in crystal (glass), sheet (plate), 
leather, pasteboard, etc. 

The petition shall be made in accordance with the model, and 3 pesos' 
worth of stamps, with the restamp "Marcos" (Marks), shall be accom- 



400 



MEXICO. 



panied, if the registration is for five years, and 4 pesos in stamps, if 
the registration is for ten years. These stamps the interested party 
or his representative shall cancel on the document that may be indi- 
cated to him. The dimensions of the cliche of a commercial notice 
shall be the same as those fixed for the trade-mark. 

Any document that does not fulfill the requirements of the law and 
the regulations shall be renewed at the expense of the interested part3\ 
Under no pretext whatever shall documents, drawings, stamps, cliche, 
or samples, which, for the purpose of obtaining the registration of a 
trade-mark or notice, may have been delivered to the Patent and Trade- 
Mark Ofiice, be returned. The public may examine the registered 
trade-marks and notices (advertisements) at the hours fixed for that 
purpose by the Patent and Trade-Mark Office. 

The number of patents issued and trade-marks registered by the 
Department of Promotion, from 1890 to the end of 1902, is officially 
D-iven as follows: 



Year. 


Patents 
issued. 


Trade- 
marks 
regis- 
tered. 


1890 


63 
153 
168 
122 
125 
154 
150 
203 
232 
279 
278 
399 
488 


97 


1891 - 


112 


1892 


161 


1893 


108 


1894 . 


79 


L895 


91 


L896 


101 


1897 


207 


1898 


235 


1899 


267 


1900 


236 


1901 . 


272 


1902 


357 








Total 


2,814 


2 323 







CHAPTER XVIII. 

PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, DENTISTRY, ETC. — COST OF LIVING- 
WAGES TO LABOR— BUILDING, ETC. 

Practice of medicine^ dentistry^ etc. — No person, whether a native or a 
foreigner, is allowed to practice in Mexico medicine, pharmacy, obstet- 
rics, or dentistry without positive proof that he or she is a graduate 
of a duly authorized college or university. Studies in Mexico must 
be made at one of the schools, hospitals, or other institutions author- 
ized by law, and when made in a foreign country they must be validated 
before the proper Mexican authorities, upon application to the Secre- 
tary of Justice and Public Instruction, and the proof, by the proper 
certificate, that they have been made in accordance with the provisions 
of the Mexican law. Validation thus granted exempts the candidate 
from the necessity of being examined. 

The medical professions, as classified by the decree of eJanuary 11, 
1902, providing for a "Plan of Studies for the National School of 
Medicine," are four, as follows: 
I. Medicine and surgery; 
II. Pharmacy; 

III. Obstetrics; 

IV. Dental surgery. 

Medicine. — The course in medicine, covering a period of six years, 
embraces: Descriptive anatomy, with practical dissection exercises; 
general and histological anatomy, theoretical and practical, with the 
proper practical exercises; topographic anatomy, with practical exer- 
cises, and pathological anatomy ; physiology, with experimental dem- 
onstrations; biological chemistry; galenic pharmacy; bacteriology; 
pathology, medical, surgical, and general; therapeutics, medical and 
surgical; theoretical obstetrics; clinics, internal, external, propedeuti- 
cal, and surgical; medical pediatrical clinic; surgical gynecological 
clinics; clinic of ophthalmology; clinic of psychiatrics; legal medicine 
and deontology. 

Pharmacy. — The course in pharmacy, covering a period of three 
years, embraces: Pharmac}^; posology; pharmaceutical economy; legal 
pharmacy; deontology; chemical and pharmaceutical manipulations; 
practical management of the physical and chemical instruments and 
apparatuses used in pharmacy; natural history of the simple drugs 
509a— 04 26 401 



402 MEXICO. 

used in Mexico; chemical analysis, general and applied to medicines; 
toxicolog}^; and the examination of food and beverag-es, and of the 
principal physiological and pathological products. Practice in the 
Charity Central Dispensary or in the drug store of the Goyernment 
hospital shall also be required as a condition for graduation. 

Ohstetrics. — The course in obstetrics, coyering a period of two years, 
embraces: Anatomy and phj^siology of the feminine sexual appara- 
tus, including the study of the pelvis; elements of embryology and 
fetal anatomy; pregnancy, labor, and puerperal conditions, physiolog- 
ically considered; care required by the mother of the newly born 
child; obstetrical antisepsia; obstetrical hygienics; obstetrical thera- 
peutics; obstetrical operations, with exercises on the manikin; and 
clinic, obstetrical and propedeutical. 

Dentistry. — The course in dental surgery, covering a period of three 
years, embraces: Descriptive anatom}^, with dissection exercises; topo- 
graphical anatomy of the head, and especiall}^ of the mouth; histology, 
with special reference to the elements constituting the mouth; physi- 
ology; dental pathology; morbous processes in general; dental thera- 
peutics; dental materia medica; dental surgery; dental operations; 
dental prosthesis; dental metallurgy; bacterioscopy. 

Article 22 of the decree provides that the studies above described, 
whether purely preparatory or professional, made in a foreign coun- 
try, may.be validated by the secretary of justice and public instruc- 
tion, upon such conditions as he may require. 

Article 28, translated into English, reads as follows: 

"Aet. 28. Persons holding diplomas from official schools of the 
Republic, different from those designated by this decree, or from for- 
eign universities, who may desire to obtain the same from the schools 
and institutions named in article 1 of this decree, for the practice of 
any of the medical professions established by this plan, shall subject 
themselves to examination, in the National Preparator}^ School or in 
the National School of Medicine, in every one of the matters or branches 
above described for each profession; and if approved they shall have 
to pass also the respective professional examination. But if the can- 
didate should prove by a competent certificate to have studied some 
matters in conformit}" with the provisions of the Mexican plan, the 
said studies shall be validated and he shall be exempted from exami- 
nation in the same. It shall not be necessary to take up the different 
subjects of examination in regular order." 

Cost of living. — It maybe said in a general wa}^ that the cost of liv- 
ing in Mexico is not great, although, of course, it varies in different 
localities. In the interior towns and villages the common necessaries 
of life, such as beef, vegetables, etc., are cheap. Coffee and tea, the 
latter being very seldom used or seen in the interior, are expensive. 
Imported goods are also expensive, as to their cost in gold must be 



COST OF LIVIKG. 403 

added the import duties and the merchants' profits. The native food 
is rich and highly seasoned. Meals may be had at the hotels in the 
interior for about 50 cents each; board and lodging at these hotels 
range from $2 to $2.50 per day. 

In the City of Mexico, living is more expensive. Hotels charge from 
$2.50 to $10 silver per day. Good meals may be procured at any first- 
class restaurant for $1. 

Ready-made clothing, such as is to be found in the United States, is 
not much in vogue, but imported English and French cloth is made 
up into suits at about the same cost as in the United States. The large 
dry-goods establishments, millinery stores, etc., are as well stocked as 
those of the larger cities of the United States, and for imported goods 
the prices vary very little from those prevailing in the latter country. 

Rents in the City of Mexico, however, are very high. This is due 
to the cost of house building, the municipal tax of 12 per cent on the 
annual rental, pavement, drainage, water, and stamp taxes. The 
expense in taxes on a house costing $10,000 to build, and renting for 
$75 per month, is $13.08 per month, or about iTi per cent of the 
receipts. 

There is not much money to be saved by hiring private lodgings 
unless it is proposed to take them for a protracted period. Furnished 
rooms in desirable localities cost nearly as much as hotel apartments. 
Although unfurnished rooms may be secured, the cost for furnishing 
them is very considerable; still they rent for about one-half the amount 
charged for furnished rooms. Oasas de huespedes^ corresponding to 
the American boarding house, abound, but as a rule the meals served 
are not of the best. Their charges are relatively moderate. The 
hotels generally, in the smaller cities and towns, are not provided 
with baths, but in the Cit}^ of Mexico, as everywhere else, there are 
excellent public baths. The prices at these establishments are, usually, 
for cold baths, 1 real (12|^ cents); for warm baths, 2 reales (25 cents). '^ 
Street tramways in the City of Mexico generally charge Q^ cents. 
Hackney coaches are divided into four classes, distinguished by tin 
flags painted in different colors, indicating the charge per hour for 
each, as follows: White flag, 50 cents per hour; red flag, $1 per hour; 
blue flag, $1.50 per hour. Good livery stables abound, and saddle 
horses may be secured at the rate of $3 for a morning's* ride, or $4 for 
an entire afternoon. A tourist intending to take a short trip to Mex- 
ico would do well to calculate his expenses at $10 per day, including 
traveling expenses. 

Labor is abundant in Mexico; in some places the supply is greater 
than the demand, and as the laboring classes can live on such frugal 
diet and need so little clothing, wages, except for imported skilled 
labor, are small. 



« Mexican currency. 



404 MEXICO. 

The hacendados^ as the large landowners are called, own immense 
tracts of land, and the hacienda^ or manor, is a congregation of build- 
ings, forming at times quite a settlement. The hacendado usually 
works his possessions in accordance with the traditions handed down 
from the time of the Spanish conquest, and he is not only a land- 
owner but he is a dealer in provisions, clothing, etc. His "peones," 
as the laborers and the tillers of his soil are called, are generally 
descended from those his father had before him, and they are paid, 
live, and work as their progenitors, and receive generally from 20 to 
37i cents a dixy. 

Wages. — With respect to the rates of wages paid in the Republic, the 
United States Minister to Mexico, under date of September 26, 1896, "' 
reported to the Department of State that the amount of wages paid 
varies throughout the Republic, being higher in some sections than in 
others, and in certain mining districts lower than they were ten to fifteen 
3'ears ago. This is generally owing to local causes. As a matter of 
course, owing to the construction and management of 7,000 miles of 
railroads, the introduction of electricity, and the placing of new and 
improved machinery in many of the mines and in some of the agri- 
cultural districts, there has been an increase in the number of skilled 
laborers, and some increase in the demand for the same, but it is true 
that with the great mass of the Mexican laborers there has been but 
little, if an}^, change in the amount of wages paid. 

As might naturally be expected, there are some instances where 
laborers receive more than they did ten years ago, but these are the 
exceptions. There are also man}^ instances where less is received. 
The daily wage paid to the farm laborer hired by the day does not 
exceed 30 cents, taking into account the whole laboring agricultural 
population. There are instances where the daj'- laborer receives 50 
cents per da}^; but again there are also instances where he only receives 
15 to 20 cents. The Secretary of the Treasury of Mexico estimates 
the daily wage of farm laborers at 25 cents. 

To obtain a correct idea of the daily wages paid to the agricultural 
laborer it is well to divide the Republic into three districts: 

First. The tropical or hot country, where labor is scarcer than on 
the table-lands and there is not the same necessity to work. Here, on 
the coffee plantations, the laborers receive from 37 to 50 cents per 
day. 

Second. The central plateau, or table-lands, which constitute the 
greater portion of Mexico as regards wealth, population, etc. Here 
the wages var}^ from 12i to 50 cents per day, the average being from 
18 to 35 cents. 

« United States Consular Reports, special report, "Money and Prices in Foreign 
Countries," Vol. XII, Part 1, p. 16. 



BUILDING. 405 

Third. The northern portion. Here labor is scarce, the influence of 
American customs is felt to some extent, and wages are higher than 
in the central portion. 

A large portion of the farming in Mexico is carried on under the 
' ' share system. " The Government reports show that in many instances 
'rations of corn are furnished to the hired laborer. In some cases we 
find that he is allowed a small amount per day for his board, in addi- 
tion to wages; again, he is furnished by the landlord with a small piece 
of land to cultivate for his own benefit. 

The wages of unskilled laborers in the fields, on the farms, in shops, 
and all other places where such labor is emplo3'^ed, are from 25 to 30 
cents a day for men, and for women and boys from a third to a half 
less, the only rations ever furnished being corn and beans. 

In the mines the wages of the same class of labor are from 40 to 60 
and to 80 cents a day and no rations. 

In the factories the wages of this same class are from 18 to 25 and 
37 to 62 cents a day, without rations. 

The wages of a higher class of operatives in the factories vary from 
45 to 75 cents per day and no rations. 

A day's labor in Mexico is from nine to thirteen hours. 

Building. — -The prevailing style of architecture throughout Mexico, 
so far as regards what may be termed modern buildings as contradis- 
tinguished from the ruined temples and palaces of the Republic, is the 
Spanish renaissance. .The cathedrals and churches are all built in this 
style. Arabesque work and stone carvings ornament the facades of 
nearly all religious edifices. Governmental buildings and those devoted 
to public uses are generally imposing and commodious. The National 
Palace in Mexico has a frontage of 675 feet and is two stories high. 

Private houses are alwaj^s substantially built, generally in a rec- 
tangular form around a courtyard. It is rare, except at the capital, 
to see a private residence over two stories high. The roofs are flat, 
with a wall running entirely around them. The roof is called the 
azotea.) and in the warmer region is often utilized by the residents for 
sleeping purposes during the dry season. Growing plants and shrubs 
are often to be seen on the azotea and in the courtyard. The windows 
of the houses are generally barred with railings of iron. The larger 
residences are constructed of igneous rock, such as porous amygdaloid, 
porphyry, or trachyte. Dwellings are made usually of brick and 
tepetate (a kind of clay thickly sprinkled with sand and pebbles, which 
is soft when taken out of the deposit, but on exposure becomes exceed- 
ingly hard) and are stuccoed. 

Some very fine examples of modern architecture may now be seen 
along the Paseo de la Reforma in the capital, where the wealthy class 
have erected several imposing residences with every comfort incident 
to those of more northern climes. 



406 MEXICO. 

On the table-lands houses in the smaller towns and villages are con- 
structed of adobe, a sun-dried brick made of dark cla}^ mixed with 
straw. 

The peons in the warm, well-wooded regions build of wood, palm 
leaves, and stalks; in the table-lands, of adobe, the houses having flat 
roofs of stamped cla}^ supported by beams. 

In the Indian villages the rudest possible habitations are to be seen, 
often being mere frameworks of limbs of trees, with the bark on, and 
thatched in on all sides with grass, palm leaves, or stalks. This, of 
course, does not apply to the City of Mexico, which is to-day a mod- 
ern city of the first class. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICAL DAT A. —WEIGHTS AND MEAS- 
URES.— CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE.— TREATIES AND CONVEN- 



TIONS. 



Area of the Stales and Territories of Mexico. 



CENTRAL STATES. 

Myriares. a 

Federal District 1 , 498. 75 

Aguascalientes 7, 692 

Durango 109, 495 

Guanajuato 28, 363 

Hidalgo 22,215 

Mexico 23, 185 

Morelos 7,082.25 

Puebla 31,616 

Queretaro 11, 638 

San Luis Potosi 62, 177 

Tlaxcala 4, 132 

Zacatecas 63,386 

NORTHERN STATES. 

Chihuahua 233, 094 

Coahuila 165, 099 

Nuevo Leon 61,343 

Sonora 198,496 



GULP STATES. 

Campeche 

Tabasco . , 

Tamaulipas 

Veracruz 

Yucatan and Quintana Roo 



Myriares. 
46, 855 
26, 094 
83, 597 
75, 863 
91, 201 



STATES OP THE' PACIFIC COAST. 

Lower California (Territory) . 151, 109 

Colima 5,887 

Chiapas 70,524 

Guerrero 64, 756 

Jalisco 86, 752 

Michoaciin 58, 594 

Oaxaca 91 , 664 

Sinaloa 71, 380 

Tepic (Territory) 28, 371 

Total 1,983,159 



Area of the islands. 



Guadalupe (Pacific Ocean)... 

Cedros ( Pacific Ocean) 

Santa Margarita (Pacific 
Ocean) 

Creciente ( Pacific Ocean) 

Revillagigedo (Pacific Ocean). 
Tres Marfas (Pacific Ocean).. 
Tiburon (Gulf of California) . . 
Angel de la Guarda (Pacific 

Ocean) 

Montague (Pacific Ocean) 

San Esteban (Pacific Ocean) . . 
San Lorenzo (Pacific Ocean) . 

San Jos4 ( Pacific Ocean) 

Cerralvo (Pacific Ocean) 

Santa Catalina (Pacific Ocean) 
aOne myriare is equal to 1,000,000 



Myriares. 
208 
343 

171 
32 
186 
232 
963 

.636 

47 

41 

49 

190 

113 

66 Grand total 1,987,201 

sciuare meters, or 1,196,000 square yards, or 247,105 acres. 

407 



Monserrate (Pacific Ocean) .. 

Carmen (Pacific Ocean) 

San Marcos 

Partida (Pacific Ocean) 

Cozumel (Caribbean Sea) 

Mujeres (Canal of Yucattln).. 
Espiritu Santo (Gulf of Cali- 
fornia) 

Other small islands 

Total 



Myriares. 

18 

184 

24 

1 

406 

4 

96 

82 

4,042 



Total area of the States and 

Territories 1,983,159 

Total area of the islands 4, 042 



MEXICO. 



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ALTITUDE OF MOUNTS, ETC. 
Altitude of some mounts, valleys, and notable raihvay stations. 



409 



state. 


Name. 


Class. 




Pico de Orizaba (Citlal- 

tepec). 
Popocatepetl 




Mexico and J^uebla 


do 




Ixtaccihuatl (highest 

point). 
Ixtaccihuatl (top rock) 
Ixtaccihuatl (foot rock) 
Malinche 


do 


Do 


do 


Do 


do 




do 


cala. 


do 




Col're de Perote (Nauh- 
campantepetl). 


. . do 




Mount 




Volcan de Colima 

Las Derrumbadas 


Volcano . . . . 


Puebla 




Do 


do 


Oaxaca 


Cempoaltepee (summit) 


do 




do 


Puebla 


Pinal 


do 


Hidalgo . . 


Jacal 6 Navajas (near 
Real del Monte). 


do 


Puebla 


do 


Mexico 


Tarimangaeho (near 

Tlalpujahua). 
Cumbre de los Ocotes. . 


do 


Oaxaca . . 


do 




Volcano 




Bufa 


Mount 


Michoacau . 


Jorullo 


Volcano 




Llanos de Apam 

San Juan de los Llanos. 


Plain 


Puebla .. 


do 


Hidalgo 


do 


San Luis Potosi 

Miehoaciin 


Llanos de " El Salado ' ' . 
Patzcuaro 


do 

Valley 


Hidalgo 




do 


Guanajuato 


El Bajio 


do 




do 


Veracruz 




do 


Do 


Valle de Orizaba 


do 


San Luis Potosi 


Valle del Malz 


do 


Tamaulipas 


Tula 


do 


Durango 




. . do 


Guerrero 


Iguala 


do 


Michoac&n 




do 


Jalisco. - 




do 


Federal District 


La Cima 


Railway station 
on the Cuerna- 
vaca and Aca- 
pulco R. R. 

Railway station 
on the Compa- 
fliaNacional 
Mexicana. 

Railway station 
on the Veracruz 
and Jalapa. 

Railway station 
on the Nacional 
Mexicano. 


Mexico 




Veracruz 


Las Vigas . . 


Do 


Boca del Monte 

Amozoc 


Puebla 







Altitude. 



Meters. 
5, 700 

5, 452 
3, 286 

5,146 
4,740 
4,461 



4,281 

3,986 
3, 960. 09 
3, 598. 09 
3,500.06 
3,396 
3, 352. 07 

3,316 

3, 137. 05 

3,072 
3, 068. 04 

3,056 
2,164 

1,383 
1,300 
2,480 

2,360 

2,300 

2, 000-2, 300 

2, 000-2, 150 

2,047 

1,750-1,790 

1,740 

1,691 

1,227 

1,220 

1,171 

1,100 

919 

850 

64 

3, 040 



3,000 

2,421.10 
2, 415. 36 
2,320 



Authority. 



Comisi6n GeogrAfico- 
Exploradora. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Humboldt. 
Comisi6n GeogrAflco- 

Exploradora. 
Do. 
Matute y BArcena. 
Almazto. 

Do. 
Harcort. 
Report of Pedro G. 

Conde. 
Comisi6n Geogrdfieo- 

Exploradora. 
Burkart. 

AlmazAn. 
Burkart. 

Harcort. 

Matute, Iglesias y BAr- 

cena. 
Bustamente. 
Humboldt. 
Data collected by Sr 
Ferrari. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Data from the Minis- 
terio de Comunica- 
ciones. 

Do. 



Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



410 



MEXICO. 



General sy^iopsis of the meteorological observations taken in several places of the Republic 

during the year 1902. 





Barometer. 


Temperature 
shade.a 


in the 




Place. 


* • 


H 


.So 

.S.S 


a 5 


a oj 

II 




Largest 
monthly rain- 
fall. 




Mm. 
721.7 
641.0 
633.4 
601.6 
617.1 
759.5 
760.1 
585. 5 
715.3 
608.5 
572.6 
592.1 
613.6 
571.4 


Mm. 
129. 9 
648.6 
634.0 
607.0 
622.0 
765.5 
768.8 
590.1 
727.9 
612.9 
577.0 
596.3 
618.1 
576.5 


Mm. 
713.3 
632.4 
628.7 
595. 3 
610.3 
762. 1 
751.5 
578. 6 
701.8 
602.8 
566.4 
587.3 
607.2 
565.0 




30.5 
37.0 
34.7 
34.5 
34.5 
33.3 
40.8 
30.6 
38.5 
31.9 
23.4 
28.6 
34.8 
30.6 


o 
11.0 

- 3.0 
5.0 
1.0 

- 0.9 
13.8 

8.9 
0.5 
1.2 

- 1.0 
7.0 

- 1.4 
0.6 

- 2.0 


o 

24.4 
18.5 
20.0 
18.5 
18.6 
24.7 
25.4 
15.9 
22.7 
16.5 
16.9 
15.5 
18.3 
15.0 


July. 




July and Aug. 
July. 






Do. 




Do. 




Do. 




October. 




July. 




September. 




July. 




September. 


Puebla 


July. 




Do. 




September. 









o 
11 . 

Oh 


Clouds. 


Winds. 


Rainfall. 


Average 
evaporation. 


Place. 






Predomi- 
nant di- 
rection. 


a.- 
a-c3 


6 

o 


>> 

eg 

.s 

'3 


o 


a.s . 
a'S 3 

o3,g^ 


d 


1— ( CO 


Colima 


66 
46 
55 
50 
60 
74 
70 
55 
64 
62 
69 
64 
54 
55 


4.7 
5.0 
5.8 
2.8 
6.2 
3.4 
5.3 
5.3 
4.6 
4.9 
3.3 
4.3 
3.0 
3.7 


"w."' 

""nk" 

SE. 

SW. 

■■■-■■■ 


NE. andS. 
NE. 

S. 
ENE. 
NW. 
NW. 
NE. 
NE. 
SE. 
S. and SW. 
NE. 

E. 

E. 

E. 


8.2 
16.0 


1.5 


85 
74 
91 
63 

104 
70 
69 

131 
97 
77 
69 

110 
79 
86 


679.4 
467.5 
804.3 


44.3 
43.0 
58.0 
59.8 
55.0 
39.5 
90.0 
42.2 
48.0 
44.0 
295. 
74.6 
54.0 
28.7 






Chihuahua 






Guadalajara 


_ 




Guanajuato 


8.1 
16.4 
18.0 

7.9 
12.4 
12.5 
12.0 

7.3 
14.6 
43.4 
12.5 


"i'.h' 

1.9 
1.0 

0.7 

... 

2.9 

"i'.i' 

2.3 
2.6 






Leon (Guanajuato) . 
MazatlAn 


572. 7 
413.1 
819. 7 
451.4 
397.3 
574.7 
1,247.6 
915. 3 
587.1 
481.1 






6.7 


2.7 


M(5rida 




Mexico 


6.2 


2.6 










8.9 






Puebla 




5.0 


Qupr^taro 

















1 Centigrade. 
Vital statistics for the year 1901, and population in 1900. 



Aguascalientes . , 

Campeehe , 

Coahuila , 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua , 

Federal District . 

Durango , 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero , 

Hidalgo , 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn , 

Morelos 

Nuevo Le6n 

Oaxaca 



Births.a 



Male. 



4,731 

1,657 

4,110 

1,036 

6,185 

5,326 

8,371 

5,373 

12, 078 

9,489 

9,135 

25, 956 

14, 251 

24, 690 

3,305 

7,106 

19, 385 



Female. 



4,462 

1,565 

3,731 

873 

5,737 

5,113 

7,890 

5, 022 

11,319 

8,840 

8,254 

24, 467 

12, 834 

22, 160 

3,096 

6,455 

18, 052 



Total. 



9,193 

3, 222 

7,841 

1,909 

11, 922 

10, 439 

16, 261 

10, 395 

23, 397 

18, 329 

17, 389 

50, 423 

27, 085 

46, 850 

6,401 

13, 561 

37, 437 



Legiti- 
mate. 



7,503 
2, 423 
7,021 
1,130 
3,133 



6,223 
7,080 
11, 594 



6,388 
44, 821 
18, 028 



2,952 
12, 183 
13, 055 



Illegiti- 
mate. 



1,690 
799 
820 
779 

8,789 



10, 038 

3,315 

11,803 



11, 001 
6,602 
9,057 



3,449 

1,378 

24, 382 



a Birth rate, 34.54 per 1,000 inhabitants. 



VITAL STATISTICS. 



411 



Vital statistics for the year 1901, and ijopulation in 1900 — Continued. 



State. 



Puebla 

Quer6taro 

San Luis Potosi.. 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 

Tepic 

Lower California 

Total 



Births. 



Male. 



12, 869 
1,903 

11,077 
4, 276 
2,328 
3,618 
2, 842 
3,150 

14,453 
8, 260 

10, 503 

6,180 

617 



244, 259 



Female. 



11, 934 
1,691 

10, 220 
4,023 
2, 026 
3,390 
2,457 
3,038 

13, 185 
7,759 
9,870 
5, 751 
^S7 



^7 



225, 801 



Total. 



24, 803 

3,594 

21,297 

8,298 

4, 354 

7,008 

5, 299 

6, 188 

27, 638 

16,019 

20, 373 

11,931 

1,204 



470, 060 



Legiti- 
mate. 



13, 449 
2,887 
15, 932 
2,422 
2,264 
3,592 
3,634 
4,876 
11, 306 
13,166 
17, 208 
3,980 
618 



238, 868 



Illegiti- 
mate. 



11,354 
707 
5,365 
5,876 
2,090 
3,416 
1,665 
1,312 

16, 332 
2,853 
3,166 
7,951 
586 



155, 574 



State. 



Deaths, a 



Mexi- 
cans. 



Foreign. 



Female. 



Total. 



Popula- 
tion, cen- 
sus 1900. 



Aguascalientes. . . 
Lower California 

Campeche .> 

Coahuila 

Colima , 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango , 

Federal District... 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

MichoacAn , 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

San Luis Potosi . . . 

Sinaloa 

.Sonera 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatdn 

Zacatecas 

Tepic 



Total. 



31 

300 

6 



204 
91 



2,263 

681 

1,288 

3,831 

1,473 

4,617 

3,398 

5,491 

15, 266 

18, 269 

8,439 

10, 264 

20, 059 

16,012 

14,116 

3,615 

4,528 

16, 828 

18, 877 

3,767 

8,690 

3,869 

2,446 

2, 965 

2,540 

2,837 

14, 279 

9,820 

7,272 

3,272 



2,107 

545 

1,354 

3,571 

1,122 

4,149 

3,139 

5,031 

14, 020 

17, 731 

7,982 

9,621 

19, 116 

14, 723 

13, 360 

3,292 

4,384 

14, 774 

17, 666 

3,756 

8,467 

3,527 

2,083 

2,798 

2,386 

2,624 

12, 477 

8,163 

6,933 

2,961 



4,370 

1,226 

2,642 

7,402 

2,595 

8,766 

6,537 

10, 622 

29, 286 

36, 000 

16, 421 

19, 885 

39, 175 

30, 735 

27, 466 

6,907 

8,912 

31, 602 

36, 542 

7, 512 

17, 147 

7,396 

4,629 

5,763 

4,925 

5,461 

26, 766 

17, 983 

14, 205 

6,233 



102, 416 
47, 624 
86, 642 
296, 938 
65, 115 
360, 799 
327, 784 
370, 294 
641,516 

1,061,724 
479, 206 
606, 051 

1,153,891 
934, 463 
930, 033 
160, 115 
327, 937 
948, 633 

1,021,133 
232, 389 
576, 432 
296, 701 
221,682 
159, 834 
218, 948 
172, 315 
981,030 
314, 087 
462, 190 
150, 098 



393, 348 



1,128 



231,061 



213, 839 



444, 900 



13, 606, 919 



a Death rate, 32.29 per 1,000 inhabitants. 



412 



MEXICO. 



Estimated value of the city and suSwhan property in Mexico on December 31, 1902. 
[Values in Mexican silver.] 



State. 



Aguascalieutes 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Federal district 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Lower California, northern distriel; 
Lower California, southern disti^t 

Mexico 

Michoac&n 

Morelos 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaea 

Puebla 

QueriStaro 

San Luis Potosi 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Territory of Tepic 

Tlaxeaia - 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 

Total 



Suburban. 



961. 77 
691.00 
136. 00 
400. 00 
129. 00 
572. 67 
915. 00 
293. 17 
940. 08 
935. 00 

773. 33 
222. 00 
472. 66 
038. 72 
635. 96 
195. 00 

023. 34 
045. 13 
107. 51 

880. 04 
075. 00 
545.00 

758. 20 
457. 85 
007. 16 

953. 21 
528. 00 

405. 05 
180. 72 
125. 64 
451. 32 



City. 



S3, 549, 

6. 874, 
5, 562, 
1,440, 

3. 875, 
6, 043, 
6, 219, 

168, 427, 

11,804, 
1,280, 
8, 690, 

37, 779, 

215, 

1, 034, 

11,794, 
9, 670, 
1, 904, 
8, 292, 
8, 599, 

23, 110, 
4, 358, 

10, 839, 
4,956, 
5, 458, 
5,554, 
5, 937, 
2, 797, 
373, 

38, 618, 

14, 044, 
9, 431, 



000. 00 
280. 00 
305.00 
975. 00 
588. 00 
420. 16 
090. 00 
976. 44 
648. 12 
234. 00 
264. 43 
948. 00 
407. 00 
421. 40 
433. 07 
309. 00 
076. 89 
280. 32 
457. 86 

466. 09 
080. 00 
259. 00 
891. 25 

272. 07 
172. 69 
931. 23 
664.24 

635. 08 

550. 10 
878. 59 
172. 64 



87, 159, 
11,666, 
14,976, 

4,251, 
27, 147, 
12, 532, 
22, 145, 
201,957, 
44,961, 

3, 982, 
27,217, 
89, 633, 

1, 178, 

3, 742, 
38, 233, 
34,761, 

9, 183, 
15,478, 
21, 71'3, 
56, 773, 
14,511, 
25, 786, 
11, 405, 
11,201, 
13,817, 
12, 382, 

6, 539, 

8,431 
92, 554 
29, 135 
25, 063 



961.77 
971.00 
441.00 
375. 00 
17.00 
992.83 
005.00 
269.61 
588. 20 
169.00 
037. 76 
170.00 
879.66 

460. 12 
069. 03 
504. no 
100.23 
325.45 
565. 37 

346. 13 
155. 00 
804. 00 
649. 45 
729. 92 
179: 85 
884. 44 
192.24 
940. 13 

, 730. 82 

; 004. 13 

623. 96 



470,986,854.43 428,538,987.67 ! 899,525,842.10 



Revenues and expenditures of the States in 1900, 1901, and 1902. 

[Values in Mexican silver.] 

REVENUES. 



State. 



Aguascalientes . 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoacto 

Morelos 

Nuevo Le6n 

Oaxaea 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

San Luis Potosi . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxeaia 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 



1900. 



«124, 

315, 

485, 

141, 

521, 

1, 100, 

1,063, 

1,300, 

440, 

1,083, 

1,444, 

1,120, 

983, 

399, 

369, 

950, 

1,229, 

352, 

961, 

468, 

581, 

414, 

304, 

243, 

965, 

1,508, 

1,411, 



618. 59 
985.62 
485. 37 
918. 49 
235. 67 
807. 03 
531. 26 
910. 80 
411.74 
679. 22 
546. 77 
946. 83 
351. 70 
238. 98 
609. 74 
236. 22 
949. 46 
382,49 
882. 22 
882. 41 
104.34 
473.06 
324. 45 
817. 41 
891.47 
821. 64 



Total ! 20, 289, 532. 96 

Federal Treasury ' 64, 676, 098. 45 



Grand total ' 84, 964, 631. 41 



1901. 



$127, 055. 00 
348, 674. 40 

446. 743. 80 

125. 259. 81 
492, 022. 77 



1,754, 

1, 150, 

489, 

1,149, 

1,810, 

1,511, 

1, 002, 

372, 

278, 

909, 

1, 255, 

346, 

938, 

503, 

605, 

431, 

247, 

231, 

1,061, 

868, 

1,526: 



669. 81 

462. 71 
014. 48 
685. 70 
059. 29 
856. 14 
951. 81 
905. 19 
977. 32 
296. 36 
810. 26 

539. 72 
643. 60 
971. 16 
986. 60 
505. 45 
742. 97 
047. 80 
111. 61 
897. 93 
832. 56 



19, 977, 724. 25 
63, 283, 196. 17 



83, 260, 920. 42 



1902. 



S172, 213. 35 
294, 577. 17 
515, 330. 15 
164, 756. 24 
395, 713. 48 



879, 

1, 134, 

447, 

1,230, 

1,814, 

1, 121, 

992, 

365, 

340, 

981, 

1,285, 

409, 

928, 

502, 

664, 

633, 

399, 

294, 



423. 06 

078. 13 

681. 34 
677. 55 
807. 93 
931. 88 
508. 46 
762. 24 
449. 12 

066. 03 
290.87 
725. 72 
734.37 

298. 14 

831. 04 
216. 58 

114. 35 
112. 12 



1, 460, 017. 82 
768,636.26 



18, 086, 952. 39 
66, 774, 380. 15 



84, 861, 332. 64 



Total. 



81, 239, 

3, 279, 

4, 079, 

1,392, 

4, 668, 

6, 100, 

9, 675, 

12, 738, 

4, 023, 

13, 941, 

14, 397, 

10, 666, 

10, 498, 

3, 908, 

2,479, 

9, 167, 

11,721, 

3,387, 

9,887, 

5, 100, 

5,879, 

3,800, 

2,314, 

2, 105, 

8, 646, 

9, 352, 

11, 172, 



132. 01 

761. 02 
342. 82 
047.50 
333. 86 
043. 76 
974. 90 
116.16 
213. 08 

102. 08 
872. 23 
180. 95 
172. 12 
891. 79 
556. 97 
493. 41 
849. 90 
825. 29 
007. 26 
393.67 
830.14 
010.99 
947. 93 
446. 79 

514. 09 
062. 36 
910. 76 



185, 623, 033. 74 
538, 798, 257. 49 



724, 421, 291. 23 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUEES. 



413 



Revenues and expenditures of the State in 1900, 1901, and 1902 — Continued. 

EXPENDITURES. 



State. 



1901. 



1902. 



Total, 



Aguascalientes. . . 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango . . . ^ 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Mexico 

Michoacftu 

Moreloa 

Nuevo Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer(5taro 

San Luis Potosl . . 

Sinaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

YucatAn 

Zacatecas 

Total 

Federal Treasury 

Grand total 



271, 
465. 

141 : 

499; 

1,132; 

1,054, 

1, 386, 

434; 

1,034, 

1,515: 

1, 143: 

962! 

384, 

358, 

886; 

1, 479: 

340; 

934, 

473, 

638, 

413, 

294, 

247; 

1,119, 

1,507, 

1, 405, 



209. 91 
736.00 

372. 10 
837. 09 
763. 57 
559. 18 
113. 44 
758. 99 
224. 01 
697. 55 
561.00 

605. 84 
645. 47 
013. 73 

013. 11 

919. 80 
933. 09 
108. 71 

776. 81 

153. 85 
016. 87 
559. 46 
189. 60 
030. 84 

659. 92 
944. 21 
761. 79 



8125, 627. 71 
302, 252. 84 
433, 927.. 66 
122, 837. 64 
532, 179. 09 



1,754, 

1,269, 

460, 

1,098, 

1,799, 

1,066, 

919, 

363, 

265, 

896, 

1, 196, 

344, 

817, 

493, 

500, 

408, 

247, 

230, 

1,039, 

1,018, 

1,525, 



305. 58 
257. 13 

987. 11 
181. 88 
597. 45 
877. 63 
162. 34 

497. 12 
173. 45i- 
006. 31 
337. 38 
362. 11 

646. 13 
227.80 
613. 53 
112. 01 
424. 90 
905. 76 
527. 28 
308. 80 
309. 68 



S169, 196. 94 
337, 013. 09 
503,707.24 
157, 859. 54 
393, 668. 61 



641, 

1, 146, 

423, 

1,222, 

1, 875, 

1, 123, 

969, 

366, 

371, 

891, 

1,227, 

402, 

919, 

612, 

496, 

623, 

384, 

256, 



382. 24 

668. 12 
230. 22 
483. 90 
231. 16 
289.20 
032. 54 
229. 14 
727. 87 
263. 32 
450. 64 
867. 95 
347. 19 

201. 13 
705. 45 
331. 70 
976. 76 
668. 94 



1,320,183.65 
791, 991. 19 



81, 228, 
3, 106, 
3,853, 
1,356, 
4, 616, 
6, 940, 
9, 285, 

13,531, 
3, 747, 

13, 626, 

14, 636, 
9, 800, 

10, 067, 
3, 842, 
2, 339, 
8, 848, 

11,468, 
3,362, 
8, 969, 
5, 006, 
5, 742, 
3, 747, 
2, 193, 
2, 074, 
8, 531, 
9, 305, 

11, 153, 



667. 68 
973. 82 
862. 06 
519. 10 
217. 93 
196. 54 
973. 30 
261. 10 
248. 67 
928. 84 
651. 97 
189. 03 
730. 24 
552. 64 
606. 59 
647.14 
703. 78 
661. 45 
481. 86 
721. 74 
607. 56 
748. 73 
993. 72 
895. 00 
337. 66 
328. 59 
301.48 



20, 645, 065. 94 
57, 944, 687. 86 



19,231,646.24 
69, 423, 005. 76 



17, 322, 707. 63 
63,081,513.73 



181,366,008.12 
618, 979, 935. 49 



78, 589, 753. 79 



78, 654, 551. 99 



80, 404, 221. 36 



700, 344, 943. 61 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

The metric system is in official use in the Republic of Mexico, hav- 
ing been adopted by the Government in the year 1862. It is used to 
compute all customs and other duties to be paid to the General Govern- 
ment, in the measurement of public lands, and by the railroads in all 
freight and other transactions, and is exclusively taught in the public 
schools. The old-time weights and measures were founded on Spanish 
models, but, owing to the inexactness of the first standards and to sub- 
sequent changes, differ at present very widely from their originals. 
The value of the metric system here assigned to each denomination of 
the old weights and measures is that fixed by the Mexican Govern- 
ment at the time of the adoption of the metric system. These tables 
are from the first edition of the Handbook of Mexico, published by 
the Bureau of the American Republics in 1891. They are reproduced 
here because the nomenclature of the old system is still in use in pub- 
lications on Mexico. By law of June 19, 1895, the metric system was 
declared the only legal system of weights and measures in the countr}^, 
and became compulsory throughout the Republic on September 16, 
1896. The equivalents in American weights and measures were calcu- 
lated from data found in Trautwine's Pocket Book as to the comparison 
between French and American weights and measures, and are believed 
to be correct. 



414 



MEXICO. 



LINEAR MEASURES. 

1 legua (league) =5,000 varas =4.19 kilometers =2.604375 miles. 
1 vara (yard) =3 pies =0.83800 meter =2.749578 feet. 

1 pie (foot) =12 pulgadas =0.27933 meter =0.916526 foot. 

1 pulgada (inch) =12 lineas =0.02328 meter =0.916526 inch. 
1 linea (line) =0.00194 meter =0.076377 inch. 

The vara is also divided (for dry -goods selling) into palmos or cuartas. 

1 palmo or cuarta =0.209500 meter =0.687394 foot =8.248728 inches. 

SUPERFICIAL OR SQUARE MEASURE. * 

1 square legua =1,755.61 hectares = 4,339.4 acres. 

1 square vara ^0. 702244 square meter = 7.559000 square feet. 
1 square pie =0.078027 square meter = 0.8.39888 square foot. 

1 square palmo =0.043890 square meter =68.03094 square inches. 
1 square pulgada =0.000542 square meter = 0.84012 square inch. 

Land or agrarian measures. 



Spanish name. 



Hacienda 

Sitio de ganado mayor 

Sitio de ganado menor 

Fundo legal para pueblo 

Labor 

Caballerla de tierra 

Fanega sembradura de maiz 

Solar para easa, molino, 6 
venta. 



Nearest English equiva- 
lent. 

Plantation 

Cow ranch 

Sheep ranch 

Legal town site 

Field 

Knighthold of land 

Sowing ground for 1 fa- 
nega of corn. 

Site for ahouse, mill, or 
inn. 



Length 


Breadth 


(varas). 


(varas). 


25,000 


5,000 


5,000 


5, 000 


3, 333i 


3, 333i 


1,200 


1,200 


1,000 


1,000 


1,104 


552 


276 


184 


60 


50 



Hectares. 



8, 778. 0500000 

1,755.6100000 

780. 2711111 

101. 1231360 

70. 2244000 

42. 7953111 

3. 5662759 

. 1755610 



Acres. 



21,697.000 

4, 339. 400 

1,928.133 

244.140 

175. 532 

105.751 

8. S13 



.434 



HYDROMETRIC MEASURE. 



This was used for measuring- and distributing- water for irrigation 
and domestic uses: 



1 buey (ox) =48 surcos. 

1 surco ( furrow ) = 3 naranjas. 

1 naranja (orange) = 8 reaUs or limones. 

1 real (bit) or limdn (lemon) = 2 dedos. 

1 dedo (finger) = 9 pajas (straws). 

According to the old ordinances of lands and waters established in 
Spanish times, the huey of water was as much as would flow through 
an aperture 1 vara (0.838 meter) square, no head or pressure being 
mentioned. By a law of the Mexican Republic, of August 2, 1863, 
1 SU7X0 was made equal to 6i liters per second for rural measures, and 
ihQpaja was made equal to 0.45 liters per minute for town measure- 
ments. This distinction was intended to make the surco a unit for 
irrigation, while the paja was made the unit for distributing water to 
houses, etc. , in towns. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



415 



CUBIC MEASURES. 

Cubic meter. Cubic yard. 

Icubicmm.-.. = 0.588480 = 0.769734 

1 cubic i«e = 0.021795 = 0.769484 

1 cubic |)ai7?jo...._. = 0.009195 = 0.324634 

DRY MEASURES. 

Liters. Bushels. 

1 carga=2 ianegRS =181.629775 = 5.154357 

1 /fflne(7a=12 almudes =90.814888 = 2.577178 

Pec lis. 

1 almud=4: cuartillos = 7. 567907 = 0. 859109 

Dry quarts. 
1 cuartiUo [quart) = 1.891977 = 1.718122 

OIL MEASURE. 

Liter. U. S. liquid quart. 

Icuartillo = 0.506162 = 0.534870 

WINE MEASURE. 

Liter. U. S. liquid quart. 

Icuartillo = 0.456264 = 0.482140 

COMMERCIAL WEIGHTS. 

Kilogrammes. U. S. pounds avoirdupois. 

1 quintal^ 4: arrobas =46.024634 =101.444 

1 arroha-25 lihras = 11. 506159 = 25. 361 

1 libra (pound) =16 onzas = 0. 460246 = 1. 01444 

Ounces avoirdupois. 

1 onza (ounce) =16 adarmes = 0. 028765 = 1. 0148 

1 adarme (dram ) =36 granos = 0. 001798 = 0. 06343 

Grains. 
1 r/rano (grain) = 0.0000499 = 0.77160 

In commerce there was used the following relation between the kilo- 
gramme and the pound {libra) different from the ratio as fixed by 
Government, viz: 

1 kilogramme =2. 1 733 pounds (libras) 

There is also a weight called caz-ga, used in commerce, in freighting, 
and in mining: 

1 carga=12 arrobas=300 pounds =138. 073902 kilogrammes=304. 332 

United States pounds avoirdupois. 

PRECIOUS METAL WEIGHTS. 

Kilogramme. Ounces avoirdupois. 

1 marco=^S onzas =0.230123 =8.1184 

1 onza=8 ochavas =0.028765 =1.0148. 

1 ochava (eighth ) =6 tomines =0. 003596 =0. 12685 

Grains. 

1 tomin=12 grams =0.000599 =9.25920 

Igrano =0.0000499 =0.77160 



416 MEXICO. 

The following table shows the coins issued b}^ the Mexican mints: 



Denomination. 



Gold coins:" 

Double hidalgo 

Hidalgo 

Medio hidalgo . 
Cuarto hidalgo. 
Decimo hidalgo 

Silver coins: « 

Peso 

50 centavos 

25 centavos 

10 centavos 



Fine- 
ness. 



875 
875 
875 
875 
875 

902 
902 
902 
902 



Value in 
pesos. 



20. 00 

10.00 

5.00 

2. .50 

1.00 

1.00 
.50 
.25 
.10 



Weight in — 



Grams. 



Troy 
ounces. 



33.841 

16. 920 

8.460 

4. 230 

1.692 

27. 073 
13. 536 
6.768 
2.707 



1. 0860 
.5430 
. 2715 
. 13575 
. 05430 

.866 
.433 
.2165 
.0866 



Diameter in — 



Milli- 
meters. 



Inches. 



1.33858 

1.06299 

. 86614 

. 70866 

. 59055 

1.4.5669 

1.18110 

. 98425 

. 66929 



f There were formerly coined in gold the onza=S16 in silver; the media onza=88; the pistola=f4; 
the escudo de oro=S2; and the escudito de oro=81. In silver, the real— $0.12^; medio real— $0.06j. 

CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE. 

Chambers of commerce in the United \lexican States at the begin- 
ning- of the year 1902, as given in the Anuario Estadistico for 1902: 



Citv. 



Aguascalientes 

Saltillo 

Portirio Diaz 

Colima 

ComitAn 

Acapulco 

Guadalajara . . . 

Ameca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 

CuliacSn 

MazatlAn 

Hermosillo 

Ciudad Victoria 

Tampico 

Veracruz 

Mexico 

Do 

Do 



Aguascalientes. 
Coahuila. 

Do. 
Colima. 
Chiapas. 
Guerrero 
Jalisco. 

Do. 
Puebla. 
Queretaro 
Sinaloa. 

Do. 
Sonora. 
Tamaulipas. 

Do. 
Veracruz. 
Distrito Federal. 

Do. 

Do. 



MONETARY CENSUS. 



417 



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418 MEXICO. 

TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 

Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 

BELGIUM. 

Convention for the extradition of criminals, May 12, 1881. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, June 7, 1895. 

BOLIVIA. . 

Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 

CHINA. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, December 14, 1899. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, March 29, 1890. 
Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 

ECUADOR. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 

FRANCE. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1886. 
Parcels-post convention, December 10, 1891. 
Regulations governing the same, January 22, 1892. 
Trade-marks convention, April 10, 1899. 

GERMANY. , 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, December 5, 1882. 
Parcels-post convention. May 24, 1892. 

Amendment to paragraph 1, article 4, of said convention, November 21, 1894. 
Convention amending article 4 of the parcels-post convention of May 24, 1892, Feb- 
ruary 25, 1897. 
Treaty for the protection of trade-marks, August 16, 1898. 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

Preliminary to the resumption of diplomatic relations, August 6, 1884. 
Treaty for the extradition of criminals, September 7, 1886. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, November 27, 1888. 
Parcels-post convention, February 15, 1889. 
Regulations governing same, March 12, 1890. 

Regulations governing fiscal officers in connection with postal authorities, in fulfill- 
ment of the above-mentioned postal treaty, March 12, 1890. 
Treaty of boundaries between Yucatdn and Belize (British Honduras), July 8, 1893. 

GUATEMALA. 

Preliminary convention on boundaries, December 7, 1877. 

Act extending the period fixed in article 8 of said convention, May 3, 1879. 

Convention for the prorogation of the periods named in articles 7 and 8 of said 

convention, March 3, 1879. 
Treaty of boundaries, September 27, 1882. 



TEEATIES AND CONVENTIONS. 419 

Convention extending for one year the period fixed by the above-mentioned treaty, 

June 8, 1885. 
Convention extending the period fixed for the conclusion of th-^ work of the joint 

commission on boundaries, October 6, 1886. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. 
Claims convention, January 26, 1888. 
Convention extending the period for the conclusion of the work of the boundary 

commission, October 22, 1888. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 20, 1890. 
Claims convention, December 22, 1891. 
Convention for the extradition of criminals. May 19, 1894. 
Convention on boundaries, July 10, 1894. 
Adjustment of the difficulties arising from the exercise of acts of sovereignty in 

Mexican territory, April 1, 1895. 
Convention extending the period within which the boundary line must be drawn, 

March 16, 1896. 
Convention for the same purpose, October 6, 1897. 
Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 



Convention to determine the nationality of Mexicans born in Italy and Italians born 

in Mexico, August 20, 1888-. 
Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 
Treaty for extradition of criminals. May 22, 1899. 

JAPAN. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1893. 

NETHERLANDS. 

Treaty of amity and commerce, September 22, 1897. 

NICARAGUA. 

Treaty of amity and commerce, November 6, 1900. 

PARAGUAY. 

Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 

" PERSIA. 

Treaty of amity and commerce. May 14, 1902. 

PERU. 

Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 

SALVADOR. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, April 24, 1903. 
Convention for the exchange of publications, July 29, 1895. 
Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 



Treaty for the extradition of criminals, November 17, 1881. 
Convention for the authentication of signatures, October 11, 1901. 
Treaty of arbitration, January 11, 1902. 
Treaty on literary and artistic copyrights, March 26, 1903. 



420 MEXICO. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, July 29, 1885. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

Treaty of limits, concluded January 12, 1828, proclaimed April 5, 1832. 

Treaty of limits, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed April 5, 1832. 

Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation, concluded April 5, 1831, proclaimed 

April 5, 1832. 
Treaty of limits, concluded April 3, 1835, proclaimed April 21, 1836. 
Claims convention, concluded April 11, 1839, proclaimed April 8, 1840. 
Claims convention, concluded January 30, 1843, proclaimed March 31, 1843. 
Treaty of peace, friendshij), limits, and settlement (treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo), 

concluded February 2, 1848, proclaimed July 4, 1848. 
Treaty of boundary, cession of territory, transit of Isthmus of Tehuantepec, etc. 

(Gadsden treaty), concluded December 30, 1853, proclaimed June 30, 1854. 
Extradition treaty, concluded December 11, 1861, proclaimed June 30, 1862. 
Claims convention, concluded July 4, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. 
Naturalization convention, concluded July 10, 1868, proclaimed February 1, 1869. 
Claims convention, concluded April 19, 1871, proclaimed February 8, 1872. 
Claims convention, concluded November 27, 1872, proclaimed July 24, 1873. 
Claims convention, concluded November 20, 1874, proclaimed January 28, 1875. 
Claims convention, concluded April 29, 1876, proclaimed June 29, 1876. 
Boundary convention, concluded July 29, 1882, proclaimed March 5, 1883. 
Commercial reciprocity convention, concluded January 20, 1883, proclaimed June 2, 

1884. 
Boundary convention, Rio Grande and Rio Colorado, concluded November 12, 1884, 

proclaimed September 14, 1886. 
Reciprocity convention, concluded February 25, 1885, proclaimed May 4, 1886. 
Boundary convention, concluded December 5, 1885, proclaimed June 28, 1887. 
Reciprocity convention, concluded May 14, 1886, proclaini^ February 1, 1887. 
Boundary convention, concluded February 18, 1889, proclaimed October 14, 1889. 
Boundary convention, concluded March 1, 1889, proclaimed December 26, 1890. 
Boundary convention, concluded August 24, 1894, proclaimed October 18, 1894. 
Boundary convention, concluded October 1," 1895, proclaimed December 21, 1895. 
Boundary convention, concluded November 6, 1896, proclaimed December 23, 1896. 
Boundary convention, concluded October 29, 1897, 'proclaimed December 21, 1897. 
Boundary convention, concluded December 2, 1898, proclaimed February 3, 1899. 
Treaty for the extradition of criminals, concluded February 22, 1899, promulgated 

April 24, 1899. 
Postal money-order convention, concluded September 2, 1899, promulgated October 

2, 1899. 
Convention extending indefinitely the time fixed by the boundary convention of 

March 1, 1899, concluded November 21, 1900, promulgated January 12, 1901. 
Additional convention to the extradition treaty of February 22, 1899, concluded July 

25, 1902, promulgated March 28, 1903. 



Treaty of compulsory arbitration, January 29, 1902. 



CHAPTEE XX. 

BIBIilOGRAPHY AND CARTOGRAPHY. 

The following- brief list of works on Mexico is given here for the 
benefit of those who desire to have a better knowledge of the country, 
and merely as an index to the literature on the subject: 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico. 

Anuario Estadistico de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, M6xico. 

Boletfn de Agricultura, Mineria e Industrias. Mexico. 

Boletfn Comercial de la Secretaria de Hacienda. Mexico. 

Boletfn Demogrilfico. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. 

Boletfn de Estadfstica Fiscal. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, Mexico. 

Boletfn Oficial de la Secretaria de Eelaciones Exteriores. Mexico. 

Censo General de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos (1895). Ministerio de Fomento, 

Mexico. 
Commercial Relations of the United States. Department of State, Washington. 
Diario Oficial. Organo del Supremo Gobierno, Mexico. 

Estadfstica General de la Republica Mexicana. Ministerio de Fomento, Mexico. 
Gufa Postal de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico. 
Informes y Mensajes del Ciudadano General Porfirio Dfaz, Presidente de los Estados 

Unidos Mexicanos. Mexico. 
Iniciativas de Presupuestos. Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico, Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Comunicaciones y Obras Publicas. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Hacienda y Credito Publico. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de Fomento, Colonizacion 6 Industrias. 

Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias de la Secretaria de la Gobernacion. Mexico. 
Informes y Memorias del Ministerio de Guerra y Marina. Mexico. 
Publications of the Bureau of Statistics. Treasury Department, Washington. . 
United States Consular Reports. Department of State, Washington. 

UNOFFICIAL WORKS. 

Abbott, Gorham D. Mexico and the United States. New York, 1869. 

Aguilera {Jose Q.) y Ordonez (Ezequiel). Datos para la Geologfa de Mexico. 1893. 

Araluce, Ramdn de S. N. (editor). Gufa General de la Republica Mexicana. Mexico. 
1899. 

Barrett, Robert S. Standard Guide to the City of Mexico and Vicinity. Mexico. 
1900. 

Baedeker, Carl (editor). The United States with an Excursion into Mexico. Leip- 
zig, 1899. 

421 



422 MEXICO. 

Bancroft, Hubert Hoive. A Popular History of the Mexican People. London, 1887. 

Resources and Development of Mexico. San Francisco, 1893. 

BedoUihe, Emile G. de la. Histoire de la Guerre du Mexique. Paris, 1866. 
Berristain y Seuza, Jose Mariano. Biblioteca Hispano-Ainericana Setentrional. 

Mexico, 1883. 
Bianconi, I. Le Mexique. Paris, 1899. 
Brocklehurt, T. U. Mexico To-day. London, 1883. 
Buissiere, Th de. L' Empire Mexicain, etc. Paris, 1863. 
Busto, Emiliano. La Administracion Piiblica en Mexico. Paris, 1899. 
Castonnet des Fosses H. Les Origines du Peuple Mexicain. Angers, 1897. 
Castro, Lorenzo. The Republic of Mexico in 1882. New York, 1882. 
Charnay, D. Ancient Cities of the New World. London. 
Chevalier, Michel. Le Mexique Ancien et Moderne. Paris, 1886. 
Commercial Directory of the American Republics, Vol. II, Mexico. Bureau of the 

American Republics, Washington, 1898. 
Coney, A. K. and Godoy, Jose F. Legal and Mercantile Handbook of Mexico. 

Chicago, 1892. 
'Congling, Howard. Mexico and the Mexicans. New York, 1883. 
Dahlgreen, Chas. B. Minas Historicas de la Republica Mexicana, 1887. 
Duclos Salinas, Adolf o. The Riches of Mexico and its Institutions. St. Louis, Mo., 

1893. 
Egloffslein, Baron F. W. Contributions to the Geology and Physical Geography of 

Mexico. New York, 1864. 
Garcia Cubas, Antonio. Mexico, its Trade, Industries, and Resources, translated by 

William Thompson. Mexico, 1893. 

6tude Geographique, Statistique, Descriptive et Historique des Etats-Unis 

Mexicains. Mexico, 1889. 

Gloner, Prosper. Les Finances des Etats-Unis Mexicains. Bruxelles, 1895. 
Hamilton, Leonidas. Border States of Mexico. Chicago, 1882. 
Hesse Wartegg, Ernst von. Mexico, Land und Leute. Vienna, 1890. 
Kessler, H. Prof. Notizen iiber Mexico. Berlin, 1898. 

■ Kozhevar, E. Report on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1886. 

- Lemcke, Heinrich. Mexico: das Land und seine Leute. Berlin, 1900. 

■ Lummis, Chas. F. The Awakening of a Nation. New York, 1898. 
Memoriae y Revista de la Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate." Mexico. 
Monthly Bulletin of the Bureau of American Republics. Washington. 

"Noll, Arthur Howard. A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1890. 
" Ober, F. A. Travels in Mexico. Boston, 1884. 
Orozco y Berra, Manuel. Apuntes para la Geografia en Mexico. Mexico, 1881. 

Materiales para una Cartograffa Mexicana. Mexico, 1871. 

Prescoit, W. H. History of the Conquest of Mexico. London. 

Ramirez, Santiago. Noticia Historica de la Riqueza Minera de Mexico. Mexico, 1884. 

- Ratzel, Fried. Aus Mexico: Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1874-75. Breslau, 1878. 
' Riva Palacio, Vicente. Mexico d Traves de los Siglos. Mexico, 1887-1889. 

' Romero, Matias. Geographical and Statistical Notes on Mexico. New York, 1898. 

La Conferencia Internacional Americana. Mexico, 1890. 

Mexico and the United States. New York, 1898. 

" Routier, G. Le Mexique de nos Jours. Paris, 1895. 

Schmitz, Otto. Die Finanzen Mexikos. Leipzig, 1894. 
• Schroeder, Seaton. The fall of Maximilian's Empire as seen from a United States 

gunboat. New York, 1887. 
Scobel, A. Die Verkehrswege Mexico und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung. (In 

Deutsche Geographische Blatter, Band X, Heft I.) Bremen, 1887. 



BlBLtOGEAPHY, 423 

Seler, E. Mexico and Guatemala. Berlin, 1896. 

Sobato, Jose G. Estudio sobre las aguas medicinales de la Republica. Mexico, 1884. 

Starr, Frederick. Indians of Southern Mexico. Chicago, 1899. 

Statesman's Yearbook. London. 

Vnlentini, Philipp J. J. The Mexican Calendar Stone (compiled and arranged from 

the German by S. Salisbury, jr.). Worcester, 1879. 
Zayas Enriquez, Rafael de. Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, sus condiciones de paz, 

etc. Mexico, 1893. 

Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, sus progresos en veinte afios, 1877-1897. New 

York. (No date; about 1899. ) 

Les Etats Unis Mexicains — leurs ressources naturelles, leur progres, leur situa- 
tion actuelle. Mexico, 1899. 



ETHNOLOGY AND ARCH-ffiOIiOGY. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES SINCE 1876. 
Prepared by Prof. O. T. Mason, U. S. National Museum. 

Anales del Museo Michoacano, Morelia, 1888-1890. Redactor, N. Leon. 

Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico. Mexico, 1877-1897. 

Antigiiedades Mexicanas. Mexico, 1892, La Junta Colombiana de Mexico (por 

Alfredo Chavero). Text and plates in folio. 
Bancroft, H. H. The Native Races of the Pacific States. New York, 1874-1876. 

5vols. (Vol. 1, 1874; Vol. 11, 1875; Vol. Ill, 1875; Vol. IV, 1875; Vol. V, 1876.) 
Bandelier, A. F. The art of war of the ancient Mexicans. 10th An. Rep. Peabody 

Museum, Cambridge, 1877, pp. 95-161. 

Distribution and tenure of lands, etc. , among the ancient Americans. 11th An. 

Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1878, pp. 385-448. 

On the social organization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans. 

12th An. Rep. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, 1880, pp. 559-699. 

Report on an archseological tour in Mexico, 1881. Papers Archseol. Inst, of 

America, Am. Series, II. 

Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States. Archseol. • 

Inst, of America, Am. Series, III, Cambridge, 1890, 319 pp., ill., bibliographic 
notes. 

Bastian, A. Die Culturlilnder des alten Amerika. Berlin, 1888. 3 vols. 

Batres, Leopoldo. Cuadro arqueologico y etnografico de la Republica Mexicana. 

Mexico, n. d. Also, Teotihuacan, Mexico, 1889, colored plates and plans; and 

IV TlalpiUi; Ciclo de 13 afios, Mexico, 1888, water colors. 
Belmar, Francisco. Ligero estudio sobre la lengua Mazateca. Oaxaca, 1892. 
Blake, W. W. Catalogue of the Historical and Archeeological Collections of the 

National Museum of Mexico. Mexico, 1884, 119 pp. Also description of Father 

Fischer's collection, Chicago, 1886, 4 pp., and The Antiquities of Mexico, New 

York, 1891, 92 pp. 
Boban, E. Documents pour servir a i'histoire du Mexique. Paris, 1891. 2 vols, and 

atlas. 
Boletfn de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geograffa y Estadistica. 1. epoca, 12 vols., 1850- 

1866; 2. 6poca, 4 vols., 1869-1872; 3. epoca, 1873-1894. 
Bowditch, Charles P. The Lords of the night and the Tonalaniatl of the Codex 

Borbonicus. Am. Anthropologist, n. s., II, pp. 145-154. 
Brinton, Daniel G. The American Race. New York, 1891, Hodges, 392 pp. 12°. 

[Bibliography of author's writings.] 



424 MEXICO. 

Brinton, Daniel G. Ancient phonetic alphabets of Yucatan. New York, 1870. 

A primer of Maya hieroglyphics. Boston, 1895, Ginn, 152 pp. 8°. 

Buschmann, J. C. Spuren der Aztekischen Sprache ini nordlichen und hoheren 

Norden, 1854, Trans. Roy. Prussian Acad., 1859, 819 pp. 
Oatiilogo de la Seccion de M6xico en la Esposicion Historico-Americana de Madrid. 

Madrid, 1893. 
Charencey, Hyacinthe de. Recherches sur le Codex Troano. Paris, 1876, E. Leroux. 

16 pp. 8°. 

Melanges de philologie et de paleographie araericaines. Paris, 1883, Leroux. 

195 pp. 8°. 

Chrestomathie Maya d'apres la Chronique de Chac-Xulub-Chen. Paris, 1892, 

Klinesieek. 

Chavers, Alfredo. Antiguedades Mexicanas. Mexico, 1892, Junta Colombiana. 

4° and atlas. Also Mexico tl traves de los siglos. Mexico, 1886. Vol. I, 928 pp. ; 

many figures. 
Cronau, Rudolf. America. Leipzig, 1892. 2 vols. 
Charnay, Desire. The Ancient Cities of the New World. [Translation.] New York, 

1887, 514 pp., illustrated. (French edition, Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau 

Monde. Paris, 1885.) 
Estrada, Aureliano. Cerro de Quiengola, in Tehuantepec Mem. Soc. Cient. Antonio 

. Alzate, Mex., 1892. 
Fewkes, J. W. The god "D" in the Codex Cortesianus. Am. Anthropologist, July, 

1895. 

Pueblo ruins near Winslow, Arizona. Smithsonian Report, 1896, Wash., 1898, 

517-838. pi. xxvii-liii. 

Forstemann, E. Die Zeitperioden der Mayas. Globus, Ixiii, Braunschweig, 1893. 

• Die Maya-Handschrift der Konigl. Oeffentl. Bibliothek zu Dresden, 74 Chro- 

moliths, Leipzig, 1880; 2d ed. Dresden, 1891. 

Erliiuterungen zur Maya-Handschrift der Koniglichen Oeffentlichen Biblio- 
thek su Dresden. Dresden, 1886. 

Zur Maya-Chronologie. Zeitschr. f. EthnoL, Leipzig, 1891, Jahrgang 23. 

Zur Entzifferung der Maya-Handschriften. Dresden, parts 1-vii, different 

dates, 1891-1898. 

Neue Maya-Forschungen. Globus, Braunschweig, 1896, 37-39. 

Die Kreuzenschrift von Palenque. Globus, Braunschweig, 1897. 

Gatschet, Alberts. Der Yuma-Sprachstamm. Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Berlinrl877, vol. 
ix, pp. 341-350, 365-418. 

Zwolf Sprachen aus Sudwesten Nordamerikas, Weimar. 1876, 150 pp. 8°. 

[Author's bibliography in Filling's Bibliography, Washington, 1885, Gov't 

print.] 

Classification of Western Indian dialects, etc. Rep. U. S. Geog. Survey W. of 

100th meridian, by G. M. Wheeler, Vol. VII. Washington, 1879, pp. 399-485. 
[Makes Piman the northern branch of the Nahuatlan family.] 

Garcia Cubas, Antonio. The Republic of Mexico, 1876. Mexico, 1876, LaEnsenanza, 
130 pp. 8°. [With linguistic map.] 

Cuadro geogrd,fico, etc., de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Mexico, 1884, xxxi, 

474 pp. 

Gracida, Martinez. Catdlogo de los nombres de las poblaciones de Oaxaca. Bol. Soc. 
de Geografia, Mex., 1889, Vol. I. 

Goodman, J. T. Archaic Maya inscriptions. Biologia Central ia- Americana (archae- 
ology), appendix, pp. 1-xii, 1-150. 

(iiunckel, Lewis W. The study of American hieroglyphics. Am. Antiquarian, 1897. 
xix, 40 pp. 



BIBLIOGEAPHY. 425 

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Analysis of the deities of the Mayan inscriptions. Am. Anthropologist, Wash- 
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The symbol of the hand. Am. Antiquarian, Good Hope, 111., 1897, 260-271. 

Hamy, E. T. Mission Scientifique du Mexiqueet dans 1' Amerique Centrale, Anthro- 

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del Museo Nacional. No. 4. Mexico, 1895, Impr. del Mus. Nac. 164 pp. [Lists 

of families and tribes.] 
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1895; Pt. II, 1897, 338 pp., 57 pi., 12 figs., 8°. [This work is an excellent text- 
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Icazbalceta, J. G. Nueva Coleccion de documentos para la historia de Mexico. 

Mexico, Vol. I, 1886; II, 1889; III, 1891; IV and V, 2 vols., 1892. 
Keane, A. H. Ethnography and philology of America. Standford's compendium, 

Central America, West Indies, and South America. London, 1878, pp. 443-561. 
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York, 1898, vol. 4, pp. 1-14, 2 pL, 8°. 
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Globus, Braunschweig, Globus, 1896, Ixx, 149-150. See also vol. Ixviii, 145 and 

277. 
Marimon, Sebastian. Relacion de la villa de Valladolid de Yucatdn. Found in the 

archives of the Indies and published by him. Madrid, 1884, Fortanet. 
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Mercer, Henry C. The hill caves of Yucatan. Philadelphia, 1896. 

Cave hunting in Yucatan. Technological Quarterly, Boston, 1897, 20 pp., 

6 figs. 

Morgan, Lewis H. Houses and house life of the American aborigines. Contribu- 
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Nuttall, Zelia. On ancient Mexican shields. Leiden, 1892, Trap, 20 pp. , 3 pi. (From 
Internat. Archiv f . Ethnog. , V. ) 

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36 pp. 

On the ancient Mexican Calendar System, Stockholm, 1894. 

Oppel, A. — Die altmexikanischen Mosaiken. Globus, Braunschweig, 1896, 4-13, 
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Payne, Edward John. — History of the New World, called America. Oxford, Claren- 
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Penafiel, Antonio. — Nombres geogrdficos de Mexico. Mexico, 1885. Govt, print. 
262 pp. 4°. 



426 MEXICO. 

« 

Penafiel, Antonio. Mapas. — Tlotzin, Quinatzin, and Tepechpan, 3 maps frona the 
Aubin collection, 1889. 

Codice Fernandez Leal. Mexico. 24 colored plates. 

Monumentos del arte mexicano antiguo. Ornamentacion, mitologia, tributes 

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Pigorini, Luigi. Gli antichi oggetto messicani incrostati di mosaico. Reale Acad. 

dei Lincei. Rome, 1885. Also Globus, Ixx, pp. 8. 
Pilling, James C. Proof sheets of a bibliography of the languages of the North 

American Indians. Washington, 1885, Bureau of Ethnology, 1135 pp. 
Portillo, Esteban. Apuntas para la historia antigua de Coahuila y Texas. Saltillo, 

1886. 8". 
Powell, J. W. Indian linguistic families north of Mexico; 7th An. Rep. Bur. Am. 

Ethnol., Washington, 1891, Govt, print. [Gives linguistic families of Mexican 

northern tribes.] 
Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la. Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan. [Published 

by Brasseur, 1860 and 1864.] Translation of Rosny essay into Spanish, Madrid, 

1884. 
Ran, Charles. The Palenque tablet in the U. S. National Museum, Washington, 

1879. 2 pL, 17 figs., 4°. [Smithsonian Contributions, 331.] 
Reyes Jose M. Breve resefia historica, etc. Boletin Sociedad de Geog., etc., Mex., 

1881, vol. V, 385-491, 2 plans, 5 pi. 
Reyes, Vicente. Las ruinas de Tetzcutzinco. Bol. Sociedad de Geografia, etc., Mex., 

1888, vol. i, 129-150. 
Rosny, Leon de. Codex Cortesianus. Paris, 1883, Maisonneuve. 26 + 49 pp., 42 

pi., 4°. 
Rovirosa, J. N. Diccionario etimologico Tabasqueno-Chiapaneco. Bol. Soc. de 

Geografia, etc., Mex., 1889, vol. i. 

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Cortez.] 

Sapper, Carl. Das nijrdliche Mittel-Amerika; nebst einem Ausflug nach den Hoch- 

land von Anahuac. Braunschweig, 1897, Vieweg, 436 pp. 
Saville, Marshall H. Ceremonial year of the Ma^a Codex Cortesianus. Proc. 

A. A. A. S., Salem, Mass., 1895, vol. 43. 

A comparative study of the graven glyphs of Copan and Quirigua. Proc. Am. 

Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 1895. 

The temple of Tepoztlan. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, Nov. 1896. 

Schellhas, P. Die Gottergestalten der Maya-Handschriften. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Ber- 
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Seler, Edward K. Das konjugationssystem der Maya-Sprachen. Leipzig, 1887. 

Das Tonalamatl der Aubin' schen Sammlung? Comptes Rendus, Congres Inter- 
national des Americanistes, 7th session, Berlin, 1888, 217 pp., 172 figs., 8°. 

Der Character der aztekischen und Maya-Handschriften. Zeitschrift fiir 

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must be consulted for many papers by this author. ] 

Altmexikanische Studien, Berlin. Veroffentlichen des Koniglichen Museum 

fiir Volkskunde, 1890, Band I, Hefte 4, 1890; Band VI, Heft 2-4, 1899. 

Die mexikanischen Bilderhandschriften Alexander von Humboldt's in der 

Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin. Berlin, 1893. 

The wall paintings of Mitla, Berlin, 1895, Asher folio, 12 pi. 

Die Nenus-Periode in den Bilderschriften der Codex-Borgia-Gruppe. Ztschr. 

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Altmexikanische Knockenrasseln. Globus, Braunschweig, 1898, Ixxvi, pp. 

85-93. 



CAETOGRAPHY. 427 

Simeon, Remi. Dictionnaire de la Langue Nahuatl on Mexicaine; Paris, 1885, 785 

pp., 4°. 
Molina Solis, Juan Francisco. Historia del descubrimiento y conquista de Yucatdn, 

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Maya writing. Science, 1895, pp. 326. 

A shell gorget from Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad, of Nat. Sc, Davenport, 

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Ethnographic notes on Southern Mexico. Proc. Davenport Acad. Nat. Sc, 

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Bull, ii, Anthrop. 

Mapa de Cuauhtlantzinco or C6dice Campos. Chicago, 1898. Dept. of 

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Thomas, Cyrus. A study of the Manuscript Ti'oano. Cont. to N. A. Ethnology. 
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Review of Codex Cortesianus, Science. New York, 1884. Vol. 3, 458. 

Maya day symbols. 16th An. Rep. Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 1897. 

pp. 199-266; 6 pi. 

Notes on Certain Maya and Mexican Manuscripts. Washington, 1885. 65 

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The Maya Year. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Am. Ethnol., Wash- 
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Thompson, Edward H. The Cave of Loltum, Yucatan. Mem. Peabody Museum. 
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Valentini, Philip J. J. The Landa Alphabet. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc, Worces- 
ter, Mass., 1880. 35 p. 

The Olmecas and the Tultecas. Proc. Am. Antiquarian Soc, Worcester, 

Mass., 1882. No. 1, vol. 2. 193-230. 

Analysis of the pictorial text inscribed on two Palenque tablets, Proc. Am. 

Antiquar. Soc, Worcester, Mass., 1895. 24 pp. 

The Toltecs in fable and in history. Ztschr. f . Ethnologic, Berlin, 1896. 

Winsor, Justin. — Narrative and critical history of America. Boston, 1889. Hough- 
ton & Co. Vol. I, p. 133-208. 8°. 

CARTOGRAPHY. « 

LIST OF MAPS OF MEXICO FROM 1858 TO 1898. 
By P. Lee Phillips, Chief of Maps and Charts Division, Library of Congress. 

Uricoechea (Ezequiel). Mapoteca Colombiana. Coleccion de los titulos de todos 
los mapas, pianos, vistas, etc., relatives d la America Espanola, Brasil 6 islas 
adyacentes. xvi, 215 pp. 12°. Londres, Triibner & Cia., 1860. 

Note.— Pages 35-53 contain a list of maps of Mexico to 1860. 

L. C. 

Orozco y Berra (Manuel). Materiales para una cartograf fa mexicana. Edicion de la 
Sociedad de Geografia y Estadistica. xii, 337 pp. 1 1. 8°. Mexico, Imprenta 
del gobierno, 1871. L. C. 

« The initials L. 0. stand for Library of Congress, Washington. 



428 MEXICO. 

1858. 

Atlas geografico, estadistico e historico de la Repiiblica Mexicana, formado por Anto- 
nio Garcia Cubas. 3 p. 1. 31 maps. 2 pi. 4, 18 pp. +11. fol. Mexico, J. M. 
Ferndndez de Lara, 1888. 

List of maps. 

Carta 1. Carta general reducida. 

2. Sonora. 

3. Chihuahua. 

4. Coahuila. 

5. Nuevo Leon. 

6. Tamaulipas. 

7. San Luis Poto.si. 

8. Zacatecas. 

9. Aguascalientes. 

10. Durango. 

11. Sinaloa. 

12. Jalisco. 

13. Guanajuato. 

14. Michoac&n. 

15. Quer^taro. 

16. Mexico. 

17. Valle de Mexico. 

18. Puebla. 

19. Veracruz. 

20. Guerrero. 

21. Oaxaca. 

22. Chiapas. 

23. Tabasco. 

24. Yucatan. 

25. Baja California. 

26. Sierra Gorda. 

27. Colima. 

28. Tlaxcala. 

29. Tehuan tepee. 

30. Territorios de Sierragorda 6 isla del Carmen. 

31. Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 

Cuadro 1. Cuadro historico-geroglifico de la peregrinacion de las tribus Aztecas. 

2. Cuadro historico-geroglifico de la peregrinaci6n de las tribus Aztecas que poblaron 
el valle de Mexico. 

L. C. 
1858. 

H. Kiepert's karte des nordlichen tropiachen America. A new map of tropical 
America north of the equator, comprising the West Indies, Central America, 
Mexico, New Granada, and Venezuela, col. 38 x 63, fold. obi. 4°. Berlin, 
D. Reimer, 1858. L. C. 

1859. 

Map of the United States and Mexico. Published by Johnson & Browning under 
the direction of Col. Carlos Butterfield. Dec, 1859. col. fold. 30x36. [New 
York, 1859.] L. C. 

1861. 

Carta general de la Eepiiblica Mexicana. 10|xl6. [In Garcfa Cubas (Antonio). 
Compendio de geograf fa. 16°. Mexico, 1861.] L. C. 

1861. 

Memoria para servir A la carta general de la Republica Mexicana, Publicada por 
Antonio Garcia Cubas. 168 pp. 11. 1 fold. map. 8°. Mexico, Andrade & 
Escalante, 1861. L. C. 



CARTOGEAPHY. 429 

1861. 

Colton (J. H.) Colton's map of the United States, Mexico, the West Indies, &c., 
1861. col. 30x37, fold. 18°. [New York, J. H. Colton &co., 1861.'] L. C. 

1862. 

Carte du Mexique representant le plateau de I'Anahuac et son versant oriental par 
Hi. de Saussure, 1862. 22 x 21. 

[In Soci6t6 de geographic de Geneve. M6moires. 8°. Geneve, 1862. v. 3, p. 60.] 

L. C. 
1862. 

Carte du Mexique, 1:5800000, par J. Barthelemi. Paris, 1862, tresgr. in-folio, colorize. 

1862. 
Carte du Mexique, 1:4900000, par L. Sagansan. 1862, tres gr. in-folio, coloriee. 

1862. 

Carta hidrogrdfica del valle de Mexico. Levantada de orden del Ministerio de 
Fomento por los ingenieros Miguel Iglesias, Ramon Almaraz, Mariano Santa- 
Maria y Jose Antonio de la Pefia, bajola direccion del IngenieroGeografo Francisco 
Diaz Covarrubias, antiguos alumnos del Colegio Nacional de Mineria. 1862. 
42^ X 26. Mexico, H. Salazar, 1863. L. C. 

1862. 

Der mexicanische staat Puebla. Vollstandige Reduction der Original-Aufnahme vom 
Baron Ferdinand von Heldtrich (Officierfriiher ink. preuss. dann in mexican. 
d. ) publiciertin 4 bl. (Massstab 1:232,500) unt. d. titel: Carta del departamento 
de Puebla levantado de orden del Gobierno Supremo de la Republica Mexicana 
por R. Almazdn 1855. Imprenta litogrAfica de A. Dastillero, Puebla. Redigirt 
V. H. Kiepert. Massstab der reduction 1: 500,000. 23^ x 23^ 

[In Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitschrift. Neue folge. 8°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 
1862. V. 13. pi. 5.] 

L. C. 
1862. 

Karte der 3 Staaten M., Puebla und Vera Cruz. ([Style on cover] Karte des 
Driegsschauplatzes zwischen Veracruz und Mexico) mit dem Stadtplan von M. 
E. Jager: Stuttgart, 1862. 

The plan of the City of Mexico is printed on the back of the map. 

British Museum. 
1862. 

Map of Mexico constructed from all available materials and corrected to 1862. By 
H. Kiepert. — H. Kiepert's karte von Mexico, iiberdruck aus desselben karte des 
nordlichen tropischen America in 6 bl. 1856 mit neuen berichtigungen 1862. 
22x27. fold. 8°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 1862. 

L. C. 
1862. 

Nouvelle Carte du Mexique, donnant le Port de la Vera-Cruz, les environs de M., la 
partie Sud-Est des ifetats-Unis, la mer des Antilles et I'Amerique Centrale. 
Dressee par A. Vuillemin . . . (Details des Environs de M. et de la Vera-Cruz. 
La Guadeloupe. La Martinique. ) J. Barthelemier: Paris, 1862. 

British Museum, 



430 MEXICO. 

1862. 

Plan de Mexico et de ses environs dans un rayon de huit kilometres. Grave chez 
Erhard. 16Jxll. [In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6"^ e^rie. 8°. Paris, 
1863, V. 33, p. 5.] 

Note. — Inset: " Esquisse de I'itin^raire de la Vera-Cruz a Mexico d'aprfes H. Kiepert." 

L. C. 
1862. 

Umgebung von Mexico bis Veracruz nach den von A. v. Humboldt, v. Gerolt, Heller, 
Smith und der Sociedad Mejicana de Geografia y Estadistica veroffentlichten 
Karten und der Aufnahme des Staates Puebla von Almazan und F. v. Heldreich, 
zusammengestellt v. H. Kiepert. 6f x 9J. 

[In Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin. Zeitschrift. Neue folge. 8°. Berlin, D. Reimer, 
1862. T. 12. pi. 6.] 

L. C. 

1863. 

Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana, formada par Antonio Garcia Cubas. 1863. 
47x56. Mexico, H. Iriarte & Ca., 1863. L. C. 

1863. 

Carte de la Sonora, avec I'indication de ses mines d'apres la carte de A. Garcia Cubas 
et les cartes am^ricaines par V.-A. Malte-Brun. 9 J x 8. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 186. 6™'= s6rie. 8°. Paris, A. Bertrand, [1865], p. 256.] 
Note.— Same map found in 177-187.^ 6™* s^rie. 33-34. 1863. 

L. C. 

1863. 

Carte de la Sonora, avec I'indication de ses mines d'apres la carte de A. Garcia Cubas 

et les cartes americaines par V.-A. Malte-Brun. Grave chez Erhard. 9^x7|. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6™e s6rie. 8°. Paris, 1863, v. 34, p. 129.J 



L. C. 



1863? 



Mexico und die Kepubliken von Central- America. Bearbeitet von C. Griif. (Tehu- 
antepec Eisenbahn-Project. Bearbeitet von Barnard, 1851. Honduras. Eisen- 
bahn-Project. Bearbeitet von E. G. Squier u. W. N. Jeffers, 1853.) Weimar, 
[1863?] British Museum. 

1863. 

Plan de Mexico et des environs dans un rayon de huit^ kilometres. [Also] Esquisse 
de I'itin^raire de la Vera-Cruz a Mexico d'apres H. Kiepert. 16J x 11. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 177-178. 6'"<' s6rie. 33-34. 8°. Paris, A. Bertrand, 1863.] 
Note. — This map also found in "Revue maritime coloniale," 1863, v. 7, p. 692. 

L. C. 
1864. 

Essai d'une carte ethnographique du Mexique d'apres les travaux de Clavigero, de 
Humboldt, de Beltrami, de Stephens, de Duflot de Mofras et de Brasseur de 
Bourbourg, par V.-A. Malte-Brun, 1864. Echelles au 1 : 7000000. Grav6 chez 
Erhard. 13 x ISJ. 

[In Nouvelles annales des voyages. 6™" s6rie. 8°. Paris, 1864, v. 39, p. 5.] 
Note,— Inset: " Valine de Mexico." 

L. C. 



CABTOGRAPHY. 431 

1864. 

Geological map and profiles of some of the principal mining districts of Mexico. 
Scale of 12 miles to 1 inch or 1 : 760320. 2 maps, each 28 x 28. 

[In Egloffstein (F. W.) Contributions to the geology and the physical geography of 
Mexico. S°. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1864, at end.] 

Note.— " Egloffstein is only the editor. The true author of the geological map, profiles, 
and descriptions is Baron Frederick von Gerolt, formerly Prussian minister at Mexico and 
afterwards at Washington." 

1865. 

Carta general del Imperio Mexicano. Formada y corregida con presencia de los lilti- 
mos datos y el auxilio de las autoridades mds competentes. Decaen y Debray, 
editores. Col. fold., 31 x 45. Mexico, Decaen & Debray, 1865. L. C. 

1865. 

Itin^raire de Mexico a Durango, dessine par E. Picard d'apres les croquis de route de 
I'abbe Domenech. 1865. 12 x 17. 

[In Soci6t6 de g^ographie. Bulletin. 5" s<5rie. 8°. Paris, 1866, v. 12, p. 272.] 

L. C. 

1865. 

Schonberg's map of Mexico. Fold. 14 x 23. [New York, Schonberg & Co., 1865.] 

L. C. 
1867. 

Johnson's Mexico. Col. 11^ x 17. New York, A. J. Johnson, [1867]. L, C. 

1867. 

Nouvelle carte du Mexique, du Texas et d'une partie des Etats limitrophes . . . 
par H. Brue . . . Eevueetaugmenteepar A. Vuillemin. ( Details des environs 
de Mexico et de la Vera-Cruz. (^ompl^ment de la carte, donnant le Yucatan et 
une partie des provinces unies de I'Amerique Centrale. ) Paris, 1867. 

British Museum. 
1867. 

Piano de la Ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del Ministerio de Fomento por 
sus ingenieros. 1867. 28 x 39^. Mexico, E. M. Sagredo, [1867]. L. C. 

1867. 

Traveling and military map of Sonora. From private field notes by Cummings & 
James Cherry. 27 x 30. [Pittsburg, Cummings & J. Cherry, 1867.] L. C. 

1868. 

Map of Lower California. From special surveys of coast and interior, made for the 
LowerCalifornia Company in 1866-67. By the company's engineers, under direc- 
tion of J. Eoss Browne. Drawn by Joseph Goldsheider, civil engineer and 
topographer, January, 1868. 17| x 14|. [New York, N. Y. Lith. and Printing 
Co.], 1868. L. C. 

1868. 

Originalkarte der californischen Halbinsel nach den Aufnahmen der fiir die Lower 
California Company ausgefiihrten Expedition unter J. Eoss Browne, W. M. Gabb 
und F. Loehs [etc.]. 13 x 9. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1868. 

[In Petermann (A.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1868, pi. 14, p. 272.] 

L. C, 



432 MEXICO. 

1868. 

Piano corogrdfico de una parte del Estado de Campeche, que comprende todo el 
mdrgen derecho del rfo TJsumacinta hasta sus confines, en el que estd incluso el 
partido del Cdrmen. Formado por el agrimensor geometra F. R. Shiels, 1868. 
25 X 21. 

[In Sociedad de Geografia y Estadistica de la Republica Mexicana. Boletin. Segunda 
6poca. 4°. Mexico, J. M. Sandoval, 1870, v. 2, at end.] 

L. C. 

1869. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. 15 x 20. 

[In Garcia Cubas (Antonio) . Curso elemental de geografia universal. 8°. Mexico, 1869.] 

L. C. 
1869. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. 19J x 26^. 

[In M^ico y sus alrededores. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.] 

L. C. 

1869. 

Piano general de la Ciudad de Mexico. 1869. Escalas de 1,000 varas castellanas. 
24 X 32. 

[In Mexico y sus alrededores. Nueva edicion aumentada. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.] 

L. C. 
1870. 

Carta general de la Republica Mexicana. Formada y corregida en vista de los liltimos 
datos. Escala de leguas mexicanas de 26 y 5 al grado. 20 x 26|. 

[In Mexico y sus alrededores. Nueva edicion aumentada. Fol. Mexico, V. Debray, 1869.] 

L. C. 
1871. 

Carte du chemin de fer interoceanique de Mexico (la grande ligne naturelle entre 
I'Europe et 1' Asie) et du chemin de fer interamerique (la grande ligne naturelle 
entre FAmerique du Nord et I'Amerique du Sud). Leon, auteur, constructeur et 
proprietaire. 22 x 28^. [New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton & Co., 1871.] 

L. C. 
' 1873. 

Carte du Mexique. Dressee au Depot de la guerre, par Mr. Niox, capitaine d'etat- 

major. D'apres les leves des officiers du corps expeditionnaire et les renseigne- 

ments recueillis par le Bureau topographique. Echelle=l : 3000000. Paris, 1873. 

Published by authority of the honorable Secretary of War in the office of the Chief of 

Engineers, U. S. Army. 27^ by 41^. [Washington] , 1881. 

1873. 

Carta geografica y administrativa de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, formada con 
presencia de los datos mds exactos y recientes, por el ingeniero Antonio Garcia 
Cubas . . . 1873. 1:2000000. 

1873-1874. 

Carte du Mexique. Dressee au D^pot de la guerre. Par Mr. Niox, d'apres les lev^s 
des officiers du corps expeditionnaire et les renseignements recueillis par le 
Bureau topographique. 2 sheets fold. 28 by 41. Paris, ve. Ethiou-Perou, 
1873. [And] Notice sur la carte du Mexique. Extrait du Bulletin de la Soci^te de 
geographic. Anon. 22 pp. 8°, Paris, J. Dumaine, 1874, L. C 



CARTOGRAPHY. 433 

1873-1875. 

C. Dewey's Aufnahme der Californischen Halbinsel under der mexikanischen Kiisten. 
1873-74. Von A. Petermann. 21 by 7^ Gotha, J. Perthes, 1875. 

[In Petermann (A.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1875. v. 21, pi. 9.] 

L. C. 

1874. 

Atlas metodico para iaensenanza de la geografia de la Republica Mexicana . . . 
A. Garcia Cubaa. Mexico, 1874. L. C. 

1874. 

Case's map of the United States, British Provinces, Mexico, and part of the West 
Indies. Col. 60 by 70. Hartford, O. D. Case & Co., 1874. L. C. 

1874. 

Cram's railroad and county map of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. 38 by 
54. Chicago, G. F. Cram, 1874. 

Note. — On the reverse side is an historical map of the world. 

L. C. 
1874. 

The granger's m^p of the United States, British Provinces, West Indies, Mexico, and 
Central America. [By Gay lord Watson, anon. ] 38 by 50. Chicago, Watson' s 
Chicago branch, 1874. L. C. 

1876. 

Map of the three great tropical American railways, viz: 1st. The Yucatan Central. 
2d. The Yucatan Pacific. 3d. The Great Central and Southern American. Leon 
and Harriet Lewis, projectors, builders, and proprietors. 

[Pr<- aredbyG.W.&C. B.Colton&Co. 22x28. [NewYork, G. W. AC. B. Colton&Co., 1876.] 

L. C. 
1876. 

William's [G. W.] copperplate map of the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central 
America, West Indies, etc. 63x63. Philadelphia, J. M. Atwood, [1876]. 

L. C. 
1877. 

Carta administrativa-itineraria de la Eepublica Mexicana. Secretaria de Estado y 
del Despacho de Fomento. Comision de cartografia, bajo la direccion del ing. 
A.Diaz. No. 1. Expendio, en el archive de cartas. Constr-y-dib,-C. Alvarez y 
R. Tangassilit-Salazar. I'' edicion, 1877. 17^ x 23f . [Mexico] , 1877. 

L. C. 
1877. 

Republica Mexicana. Piano del Istmo de Tehuantepec. 1 : 250000. Government of 
Mexico, 1877. U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1878. 

Karte der Halbinsel Yucatan, hauptsiichlich nach der von Joachin Hiibbe und Andres 
Aznar Perez zusammengestellten und von C. Hermann Berendt revidirten und 
vermehrten Mapa de la peninsula de Yucatan, von 1878. 13 x 17^. Maassstab 
1:1600000. 

[In Petermann's Mittheilungen. 1879. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, [1879]. v. 25, pi. 11 at end.] 

L. C. 

509a— 04 ^28 



434 

MEXICO. 

1879. 



L. C. 

1879. 
Voyage en Sonora (Mexique) par A Pinarf 7«7q v^ u „ 

• i^aris, 1880. V. 20, at end.] 
1880. 
Mexico and Central America 'R.r ur x^ ^ 

Panama., Lon.on ^^U^Zl G.TX i^CT^^T " *" '""^ °' 

jgg British Museum. 

1881. ^- ™' 

L. C. 

1881. 

ington, 1881. ^^^^- Scale, 1:3000000. 27| x 41 J. Wash- 

N0TE.-lnset: ■' Map showin, the political divisions." 

1881. ^- ^- 

hshed by A. Gensoul, revised by W. Holt! 1881. "" ^'^^'^'^^' P"^" 

L. 0. 
1881-1882. 

1882. ^- ^- 

"Commercial Herald " Tho +i, 

Mexico. 8„pp,en;enttotr?cT2"cWH:',r''".; ''""^^ «'"»^ -d 
^an.. 1882. .. . 3. San ^..0^3.7^^: O^ C^^^' "^a" 

1882. 
•^legler. Gezeichnet von T. von Bomsdortt. 1882 



Entworf en von 
British Museum. 



CAETOGRAPHY. 435 

1882. 

Map of Sinaloa, with statistical and geological notes. By Frederick G. Weidner. 
1 pi. 19 pp. 1 map, 35J x 29, fold. 8°. San Francisco, Francis Valentine & 
Co., [1882]. L. C. 

1882. 

Map of the Republic of Mexico. Revised and corrected by Lorenzo Castro, drawn 
by Theodore Gentilz. 30 x 44. New York, Thompson & Moreau, [1882]. 
[In Castro (Lorenzo). The Republic of Mexico in 1882. 12°. New York, 1882.] 

L. C. 

1882. 

Nuevo mapa estadistico y ferrocarillero de Mexico y la frontera del norte. — New 
statistical and railroad map of Mexico and the northern frontier. Showing the 
products of the different zones [etc.], by A. K. Owen and Albert von Motz. 
1882. col. 44 X 60. Philadelphia, J. L. Smith, 1882. L. C. 

1883. 

Dahlgren (Charles Bunker). Historic mines of Mexico. 1 p. 1., 220 pp. 2 portraits. 
20 maps. 8°. New York, for the author, 1883. 

List of maps. 

Hypsometric map of the Republic of Mexico. 

Production map. 

Map of Central Mexico (Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and San Luis PotosI). 

Map of Guanajuato and Veta Madre. 

Section of Valenciana. 

Map of Veta Grande (Zacatecas), Descubridora, and Quebradilla. 

Map of Pinos. 

Map of Fresnillo. 

Map of Sombrerete. 

Map of Catorce. 

Map of Northwestern Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango). 

Map, of Guadalupe de los Reyes. 

Map of Rosario. 

Map of Batopilas. 

Map of Parral. 

Map of Cusihuiriachic. 

Map of San Dimas. 

Map of Southern Mexico. 

Map of Tlalpujahua. 

Map of Pachuca and Real del Monte. 

1883. 

El Corazon del Anahuac y sus ferrocarriles. 1:250000. 1883. Published by the 
Major & Knapp Eng. and Mfg. and Lith. Co., N. Y. U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1883. 

Map of the Texas, Topolobampo and Pacific R. R. and Tel. Co., from Chihuahua 
and Parral to Topolobampo Harbor. 1 :5280 (about 12 miles to the inch). Albert 
von Motz. Published by T. T. & P. R. R. Tel. Co., 1883. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1883. 

Steamship line and railroad map of the Merchants' and Tourists' Guide to Mexico. 
13 X 19. Chicago, C. W. Laremba, 1883. L. C. 



436 MEXICO. 

1883. 

Watson's nuevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del Norte, America Central, Istmo de 
Panama, Cuba, Jamaica, and Bahama Islands. 38 x 55. Nueva York, G. Wat- 
son, 1883. L. C. 

1883-1884. 

Memoria presentada al Congreso de la Union por el Secretario de Estado y del Des- 
pacho de Fomento, Colonizacion, Industria y Comercio de la Republica Mexicana, 
General C<irlos Pacheco. Corresponde a los anos trascurridos de enero de 1883 
a 1885. V. 6. Atlas. 2 p. 1. 48 maps. Fol. Mexico, Oficina tipogrdflca de 
la secreta,ria de fomento, 1887. 

Contents. 

Carta general telegrifica de los Estados Unldos Mexieanos, comprendiendo lo construido y en 

explotacion en las diversas lineas hasta junio de 1885. 
Sheet 1. Diagrama que maniflesta el estado de las hojas de publicacion & la 100,000 en junio 
30 de 1885. Kegion del norte. 

2. Canevds de las operaciones topogriflcas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Region 

del norte. (Fraecion superior.) 

3. CanevAs de las operaciones topogrdfleas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Regi6n 

del norte. (Fraecion inferior.) 

4. Diagrama que maniflesta el estado de las hojas de publicaci6n &, la 100,000" en junio 

30 de 1885. Region central y de oriente. 

5. Canevas de las operaciones topogrdflcas ejecutadas hasta junio 30 de 1885. Region 

central y de oriente. (Fraecion superior.) 

6. Canevds de las operaciones topogrAflcas ejecutadas hasta juuio 30 de 1885. Regi6n 

central y de oriente. ( Fraecion inferior. ) Carta general de la Reptiblica Mexicana. 

7. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la 1" fraecion de la zona. 

8. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion la 1*, 2* fraecion de la zona. 

9. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion 2^ de I"', 2^ fraecion de la zona- 

10. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion 1» de la 8^ fraecion de la zona. 

11. Territorio de la Baja California. Carta de la porcion "2?- de la 3^ fracci6n de la zona. 

12. Piano de la triangulacion praeticada entre Campo Astronomico y Cabo Haro, en el 

puerto de Guaymas. 

13. Piano del puerto de Guaymas, con un proyecto para el mejoramiento de sus condi- 

ciones sanitarias. 

14. Mapa del canton Meoqui. Estado de Chihuahua. 

15. Mapa del canton Balleza. Estado de Chihuahua. 

16. Mapa del canton Jimenez. Estado de Chihuahua. 

17. Mapa del canton Camargo. Estado de Chihuahua. 

18. Puente para el rio Atoyac. Direccion del camino de Tehuacin & Puerto Angel por 

Oaxaca. Piano num. 1. 

19. Ferrocarril Hidalgo. Proyecto para el ensanche de la estacion de Pachuca y 

alineamiento del camino que conduce & Mexico. 

20. Ferrocarril de M6rida A Calkini. Proyecto de estacion en Umto. 

21. Ferrocarril de Puebla 4 Izucar de Matamoros. Secci6n I'' de Puebla A Cholula. 

Proyecto del Puente de la Union sobre el rio Atoyac. 

22. Ferrocarril de Puebla d Izucar de Matamoros. Seccion 2» de Cholula 4 Atlixco. 

2" tramo. Puente de Teyecatl. 

23. Ferrocarril de Puebla A Izucar de Matamoros. 2» seccion de Cholula &. Atlixco. 

Puente de Tejaluca en el kilometre 43. 

24. Piano topogrdfico del rio Chubiscar en una zona de 2 kilometros 4 cada lado de la 

linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mexicano. 

25. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Piano de una de las trabas del puente sobre el rio 

Grande del Norte. 

26. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Piano de la fundacion estacada y de los apoyos del 

puente sobre el rio Grande del Norte. 

27. Piano topogrAflco del rio Conchos en una zona de 2 kil6metros k cada lado de la 

linea del puente del Ferrocarril central mexicano. 

28. Piano general del puente sobre el rio Conchos. 

29. Puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi &. Tam- 

pico. 

30. Detalles del puente sobre el rio Salto. Ferrocarril central mexicano. 



CARTOGEAPHY. 



437 



Sheet 31. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi k Tampico. Pilares del centre y 
del este del puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 

32. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi 4 Tampico. Estribo oeste del 

puente sobre el rio Salto, en Santa Rosa. 

33. Ferrocarril central. Divisi6n de San Luis Potosi k Tampico. Piano y detalles del 

puente provisional, sobre un agujero en el kilometro 118. 

34. Ferrocarril central. Division de San Luis Potosi k Tampico. Piano y detalles del 

puente de Palastro proyectado sobre un agujero en la est. 4,715, kilometro 118. 

35. Ferrocarril central. Mamposteria y cimientos para el puente sobre el rio Tamasopo. 

36. Ferrocarril central mexicauo. Division de Tampico. Puente sobre el rio Choy. 

37. Ferrocarril central mexicano. Linea del Pacifico. Division oriental. Lineas y 

reconocimientos entre Guadalajara y Lagos. 

38. Ferrocarril de Puebla k San MSrcos y Villa de Libres. Puente en la barranca de 

Xalcatl. Tercera secci6n. 

39. Rada de Salina Cruz. 

40. Proyecto de muelle para el puerto de Salina Cruz. 

41. Canal n. del Chijol. Proyecto de trazo final para someterio k la aprobacion del 

Supremo Gobierno. 

42. Faro y torre para el puerto de Guaymas, establecidos por la Compania del ferrocarril 

de Sonora. 

43. Piano de una parte del Estado de Colima. Proyecto da saneamiento para el puerto 

de Manzanillo. 

44. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

45. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

46. Muelle para el puerto de Manzanillo. 

47 Proyecto de monumento k la memoria de Sor. Juana Ines de la Cruz. 

L. C. 

1884. 

Carta ferrocarrilera de Mexico, con los datos mds recientes acerca de unas y otras 
lineas. Expresamente formada por ingenieros de la Secretaria de Fomento del 
Gobierno Federal para el primer almanaque historico, artistico y monumental de 
la Kepublica Mexicana. Publicado por Manuel Caballero, editor de " El Noti- 
• cioso, ' ' Mexico. Scale : 1 : 3800000. 23| x 35*. New York, G. W. & C. B. Colton 
& Co., [1884]. L. C. 

1884. 

Carta topogrdfica general de los alrededores de Puebla, formada por la Comision 
geognlfico-exploradora. 1:50000. Published by Mexican Government, 1884. 
3d serie 6^ A. P. U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1884. 

Der Staat Sinaloa in Mexico. Nach eigenen Aufnahmen und Eekognoscirungen von 

Friedrich G. Weidner. 16* x 13*. Gotha, J. Perthes, 1884. 

[In Petermann (J.) Mittheilungen. 4°. Gotha, 1884. v. 30, pi. 1.] 

L/. C 

1884. 

General map of the Eepublic of Mexico, showing railroads, steamships, and telegraph 
communications. 1:2217600. Published by Rand & McNally, Chicago, 1884. 
Corrected to 1884. In four sheets. U. S. War Dept. lib. 

1884. 

Carta topogrdfica general de los alrededores de Puebla. Formada por la Comisi6n 
geogrdfico-exploradora. Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho de Guerra y 
Marina. Comision geogrdfica de fomento y guerra. Bajo la direccion del ing. 
Al. Diaz. Levantamiento: varios individuos de la comision. Construccion : cap. 
1° E. M.— Beltran. Dibujo y escrituras: Ing. C. T. Alvarez. Edicion de 1884. 
3^ serie. Letra A. P. 19* x 251. Escala de 1 : 50000— 1°'°'=50 metres. L. C. 



438 MEXICO. 

1884. 

Mapa de la red telegrdfica y de los itinerarios generales de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 
Formado segun datos oficiales por F. A. Labadie. 211x275. San Francisco, 
Cal., Gregoire, Tauzy y Ca., [1884]. 

Note. — Another copy, traced on linen, in the library. 

L. C. 
1884. 

Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies. Drawn and engraved expressly for 
the Encyclopaedia Britannica, American reprint. Scale, 95 miles — one inch. 
19x27. Philadelphia, J. M. Stoddart Co., [1884]. 

Note. — Copyright in 1884 by Roger Sherman. 

L. C. 
1884. 

Mexico. Mapa de las lineas del ferrocarril central y conecciones. Escala del mapa 
1: 6000000. 14 J x 20i. Buffalo, N. Y., Matthews, Northrup & Co., 1884. 
Note. — Copyrighted by the Mexican Central Railway Co., Limited 1884. 

1884. 

Mexique. Echelle, 1:5000000. 

[In Vivien de St. Martin (Louis). Atlas universel de geographic. Fol. Paris, Hachette, 
1884. Pt. 73.] 

L. C. 

1884. 

Poole Bros. Railway map of Mexico. 14^ x 20^. [Chicago, Poole Bros., 1884.] 

L. C. 

1884. 

Watson's nuevo mapa de Mexico y la frontera del norte, America Central, Istmo de 
Panama, Cuba, Jamaica y islas de Bahama. 37 x 54. Nueva York, G. Watson, 
1884. " L. C. 

1884-1889. 

International (water) Boundary Commission. United States and Mexico. Treaties 
of 1884 and 1889. Brownsville and Matamoras jetties, report of Col. Anson 
Mills, 3d U. S. Cav. Maps by engineers of commission and Capt. M. M. Men- 
diola, Mexican engineer. Washington. 19, 5 pL, 5 sheets of maps. 

No. 1, reference map, showing Rio Grande and vicinity of Bro^vnsville, with river as located 
by the commission of 1883. Scale, 1:5000. No. 2, Rio Grande sections and cross-sections at 
Fortin Paredes and Freeport. Scale, 1:1000. No. 3, Rio Grande, jetties and cross-sections in 
the vicinity of Brownsville, Texas and Matamoras. Tamaulipas, Dec, 1894. Scale, 1:1000. 
No. 4, Bends of the Rio Grande at Casa Matar and artillery quarters. Scale, 1 : 1000. No. 5, 
comparative map of river and jetties in the vicinity of Brownsville, Fort Brown, and Santa 
Cruz Point, sho-\ving the surveys of 1853, 1869, 1875, 1877, 1880-82, 1894. Scale, 1:2000. 

U. S. War Dept. lib. 
1885. 

Atlas Mexicano, por Antonio Garcia Cubas. 31 sheets incl. Carta general, fol. 
Mexico, Debray, suc's, 1885. 

Contents. 

Carta 1. Sonora. Escala 1 : 2000000. 

2. Chihuahua. Escala 1 : 2000000. 

3. Coahuila. Escala 1:2000000. 

4. Nuevo Leon. Escala 1:1200000. 

5. Tamaulipas. Escala 1:1500000. 



CARTOGEAPHy. 439 

Carta 6. Veracruz. Escala 1:1200000. 

7. Tabasco. Escala 1:1200000. 

8. Campeche. Escala 1:1200000. 

9. Yucatan. Escala 1:1200000. 

10. Sinaloa. Escala 1:1500000. 

11. Jalisco. Escala 1:1500000. 

12. Colima. Escala 1:500000. 

13. MiehoacAn. Escala 1:1000000. 

14. Guerrero. Escala 1:1000000. ' 

15. Oaxaca. Escala 1:100000. 

16. Chiapas. Escala 1:1200000. 

17. Durango. Escala 1:1200000. 

18. Zacatecas. Escala 1:1200000. 

19. Aguascalientes. Escala 1:300000. 

20. San Luis Potosi. Escala 1: 1325000. 

21. Guanajuato. Escala 1:600000. 

22. Quer^taro. Escala 1:480000. 

23. Hidalgo. Escala 1:6000000. 

24. Mexico. Escala 1:500000. 

25. Morelos. Escala 1:250000. 

26. Puebla. Escala 1:900000. 

27. Tlaxcala. Escala 1:230000. 

28. Baj a California. Escala 1:3000000. 

29. Distrito Federal. Escala 1:245000. 

30. Territorio de Tepic. 

1885. 

Map of the City of Mexico, authorized for publication with the Mexican guide, by 
General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1885. 17 x 24. 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's Sons, 
1890, at end.] 

L. C. 
1885. 

Map of the United States and Territories, with adjacent parts of Canada and Mexico; 
also part of the West Indies. 1 : 2534400. (40 miles to the inch. ) U. S. General 
Land Office. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1885. 

Mapa general de Mexico. Ferrocarril Central, Mexico. 1885. (Blue print, 1 sheet. ) 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1885. 

Official map of the State of Sonora. 1885. By Chas. E. Herbert. 23 x 27. 1 sheet 
fold. 18°. [n. p., 1885.] 

Note.— On cover, date 1884.. Title in Spanish and English. 

L. C. 

1886. 

Map of the environs of the City of Mexico. Authorized for publication with the 
Mexican Guide, by General Carlos Pacheco, Minister of Public Works. 1886. 
11^x181. 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's sons, 
1890. at end.] 

L. C. 
1886. 

Mexico. 16J x 23. 

[In Janvier (Thomas A.) The Mexican Guide. 5th ed. 16°. New York, C. Scribner's sons, 
1890. at end.] 
Note.— Map copyrighted in 1886, by W. M. Bradley & bro. 



•i40 MEXICO. 

1SS6. 

< »atline map of field operations agaiost hostile Chihuahua Indians, 1:950,400 (15 
miles to the inch). By Lieut. E. J. Spencer, C. of E., engr. oflicev, department 
of Arizona. 1S86. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1887. 

Carta telegnifica y ferrocarrilera de la EepubUca Mexicaha. Direccion general de 
estadistica, secretarfa de fomento, 1887. Escala de 1 : 3000000. 27jx37i. 

L. C. 

1888. 

Carta general de la Eepiiblica de Mejico y de los Estadas Unidos del Xorte, con 
relacion a las propiedades de la Compaiiia minera de fierro mejicana. Scale: 
1: 3800000. 32* x 44*. New York. G. W. & C. B. Cohon & co. [1888]. 

L. C. 

1889. 

Bancroft's map of the mineral districts of northern Lower California. Designed by 
Fred J. Engelhardt, March 1, 1889. Compiled from official authentic maps and 
sketches [on record] from special investigation in person and assisted by the 
oldest and most expert Mexican prospectors, 1888-1889. 16* x 19. San Fran- 
cisco. The Bancroft companv, 1889. 

L. C. 
1889. 

Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Eepiiblica Mexicana. Formada por disposicion 
del Secretario de Fomento, Gral. Carlos Pacheco. por una comision especial bajo 
la direccion del profesor Antonio del Castillo, 1889. Escala de 3,800,000°. 29 x 
41*. Paris, Erhardhermanos, [1889]. 

L. C. 
1889. 

Cartes commerciales — Etats-Unis du Mexique (1st pt., north Mexico; 2d pt., south 
Mexico), 1:3000000. F. Bianconi, Paris, 1889. (Forms 7th series, nos. 4 and 5, 
of geographical memoirs published by Chaix, Paris). U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1888. 

Memoria para la carta general geografica de la EepubUca Mexicana. Ano de 1889. 
27 pp., 1 1. 8°. Mexico, Oficina tip. de la Secretarfa de Foniento, 1890. 

L. C. 
1889. 

Mexico. 1:4435200. ( 70 ndles to mch. ) Bradley & co., Phil., 1889. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1889. 

Piano geologico del Eeal de S. Antonio y el Triunfo de la Baja California: Formado 
por Antonio del Castillo, ingeniero de minas. Eevisado en 1889. 25* x 21*. 
Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho. [1889]. 

Note. — Inset: • ' Estreiniclacl sur de la peninsula de la Baja California. Bosquejo geologico." 

L. C. 
1889. 

United States with adjacent portions of Mexico. 1885. Corrected to 1889. Scale, 
1:5000000. 4 sheets. U. S. War Dept. Lib. 



CAETOGRAPHY. 441 

1890. 

Carta general de la Repiiblica Mexicana. Formada en el Ministerio de Fomento con 
los datos miis recientes, por disposici6n del secretario del ramo, General Carlos 
Pacheco, 1890. Escala de 1:2000000. 44^ x 68. Paris, Erhard hermanos, 
[1890]. ■ L, C. 

1890. 

Carta de los ferrocarrlles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Secretaria de Fomento, 
seccion tercera. Escala: 1:2000000. 44^x66. Paris, Erhard hermanos, 1890. 

L. C. 
[1890?] 

Carta minera de la Republica Mexicana. Formada pof disposicion del Secretario de 
Fomento, Oral. Carlos Castillo. Escala de 3,000,000. 29 x 41 J. Paris, Erhard 
hermanos, [1890?] 

1891. 

Map of Mexico, prepared under the direction of Captain Daniel M. Taylor, Ord- 
nance Department, and 1st Lieutenant George P. Scriven, Signal Corps, in the 
military information division, Adjutant-General's Office, War Department; 
William N. Peck, chief of division, by Charles H. Ourand, draughtsman. 
1891. 301 X 40^. L. C. 

1891. 

Rand, McNally & co.'s indexed Atlas of the World. Map of Mexico. Statute miles, 
69.16—1 degree. Kilometers, 111.307—1 degree. 19 x 26. Chicago, Rand, 
McNally & co., 1891. 

Note. — Inset of " Valley of Mexico on an enlarged scale." 

L. C. 
1891. 

Reduccion del piano oficial de la ciudad de Mexico. Levantado de orden del H. 
Ayuntamiento por la Comision de saneamiento y desagiie en 1889 y 1890 deta- 
llado ampliamente y publicado por la antigua y acreditada casa C. Montauriol y 
ca., 1891. 29x38i L. C. 

1891-1892. 

Carta de la Republica. 1:100000. 1 Bl. 18. I. M. Mexico.— N. Tetzmeloccan.— 
O. Huamantla. — S. Popocatepetl. — T. Ruebla. — 11. K. Lanos. — P. Chalchico- 
mola. — U. Tlacoyalco. — V. Orizaba. — Iv. A. Tehuacdn. Mexico, Secretaria de 
Fomento. Carte des Etats-Unis du Mexique dressee par les soins de la Societe 
de g^ographie de Lille d'apres les plus recents documents officiels. B. S. geogr. 
Lille 18. Diaz, A. Carta topogrdfica general de los alrededores de Puebla, 
formada por la Comision Geogrdfica Exploradora. Edicion de 1884. (3'^ serie.) 
1:50000. Paris, impr. Erhard. Jaccottey, P., etM. Mabyre. Carte des services 
maritimes posteaux des Antilles et du Mexique. Paris, Delagrave, 6dit. Rand, 
McNally & co.'s indexed (pocket) map of Mexico. New York and Chicago, cl. 
Taken from "Bibliotheea geographiea," 1891 and 1892. 

1891-1893. 

Bosquejo de una carta geologica de la Republica Mexicana. Formada por disposicion 
del Secretario de Fomento por una comision especial bajo la direccion de Antonio 
de Castillo. Reformada con nuevos datos en 1891, 1892 y 1893. Escala: 
1:10000000. lOixMJ. Mexico, E. M. Moreau, [1893]. L. C. 



442 MEXICO. 

1891-1896. 

Report of the international boundary commission. United States and Mexico. 
1891-1896. Maps title. 26 maps. fol. Washington, Government Printing Office, 
1898. 

List of maps. 

Index map of the boundary. 

California line. 

Colorado River section of the boundary (in colors). 

Arizona — Sonora oblong line. 

Parallel 31° 20' north latitude. 

Meridian section. 

Parallel 31° 47' north latitude. 

Profile of the boundary. 

L. C. 

1892. 

Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 1 : 2000000. 1890. Cor- 
rected to 1892. Published by the Mexican Government. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1892. 

Map of Mexico. About 1 : 3000000 (45 miles to inch) . By C. H. Ourand . Published 
by Bureau of Military Information, War Department, 1891. Revised ed., 1892. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1892-1893. 

Krater-Typen in Mexico und Guatemala. Nach Auf nahmen von Dr. Carl Sapper, 1 892 
und 1893. 12 x 8f . [In Petermann's Mittheilungen, 1894. 4°. Gotha, J. 
Perthes, [1894]. v. 40, pi. 8. at end.] L. C. 

1893. 

Carta de los ferrocarriles de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 1893. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 

1893. 

Carta de los meteoritos de Mexico, 6 regiones de la Repiiblica en que han caido fierros 
y piedras meteoricas. Formada, bajo los auspicios de la Secretaria de Fomento, 
por Antonio del Castillo, ingeniero de minas, director de la Escuela Nacional de 
Ingenieros y de la Comision Geologica. Escala: 1 : 10000000. 14| x lOJ. Mexico, 
Moreau y ho., [1893]. L. C. 

1893. 

Carta minera de la Republica Mexicana. Formada, por disposicion del Secretario de 
Fomento, por el ingeniero de minas, Antonio del Castillo. Corregida en 1893. 
Escala: 1:2000000. 42^x66. Mexico, E, M. Moreau y ho., [1893]. 

1893. 

Piano de la ciudad de Mexico. 10Jxl5^. [In Diccionario enciclop^dico hispano- 
americano. 8°. Barcelona, Montaner & Simon, 1893. v. 12, bet. pp. 740-741.] 

L. C. 



# 



CAETOGEAPHY. 443 

1893. 

Castillo (Antonio del). Bosquejo de una carta geol6gica de la Repiiblica Mexicana. 
1:10000000. Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Carta de los meteoritos de Mexico, 6 regiones de la Repiiblica en que ban 

cafdo fierros y piedras meteoricas. 1: 10000000. Comision Geologica Mexicana. 
Mexico. 

Cartas geologicas de pozos artesianos abiertos en la Gran Cuenca de Mexico. 

Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

■ Piano geologico del Penon de los Bafios. 1:4000. Comision Geologica Mexi- 
cana. Mexico. 

Piano geologico y petrogrdfico de la Cuenca de Mexico, region sw. 1 : 2000000. 

Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Cabanas (L. ) y Ordoiiez (E. ) Piano geologico de las minas de fierro de la 

Ferriera, de la Encarnaci6n y del distrito minero de S. Jose del Oro. 1:20000. 
Comision Geologica Mexicana. Mexico. 

Taken from " Bibliotheca Geographica, 1893." 

1893. 

Piano geologico y petrogrdfico de la cuenca de Mexico, region SW. Formado por 
Antonio del Castillo y Ezequiel Ordoiiez, 1893. No. 1. — SW. de la cuenca de 
Mexico. Escala: 1:200000. 10x18. Mexico, E. M. Moreau y ho., [1893]. 

1894. 

Carta general del Estado de S. Luis Potosi. Levantada por iniciativa de su actual 
gobernador, Gral. Carlos Diez Gutierrez, por la Comision Geogrdflco-exploradora. 
Mexico, 1894. Scale, 1:250000, or 4 stat. miles to an inch. 12 sheets. 

Note. — The scale on which this map is drawn is sufficiently large to admit of a considerable 
amount of detail being shown. The altitudes are given in meters and all means of communi- 
cation are laid down. On the difierent sheets of the map some useful statistical and geographi- 
cal information ia given in tabular form, together with insets showing the political divisions 
and geographical positions. The hill shading employed is effective, the rivers and streams 
are printed in blue, and the lettering clear. 
Title taken from the Geographical Journal, London, 1896. v. VII, no. 1. 

1894. 

Ferrocarriles de Hidalgo y del Nordeste; piano general. 1: 250000. 1894. 

U. S. War Dept. Lib. 
1894. 

Mexico. 17J x 23J. [Philadelphia], W. M. Bradley & bro., 1894. 
Note.— Prom Bradley's Atlas of the world, p. 73. Philadelphia, 1885. 

L. C. 

1894. 

Karte der Verbreitung der Sprachen in Siidost-Mexico und Britisch Honduras urn's 
Jahrl894. Von Dr. Karl Sapper. Massstab: 1:4000000. 9| x 12^ 

[In Petermann's Mittheilungen. 1895. 4°. Gotha, J. Perthes, [1895] . v. 41, pi. 12. at end.] 

L. C. 

1894. 

Map of the United States of Mexico. Drawn and compiled from the latest Mexican 
and United States Government autnorities, and other reliable sources. By Oscar 
Hindrichs, C. E. Scale, 1:5385600. 16J x 22J. [In Moore (Henry). Rail- 
way guide of the Republic of Mexico. Springfield, O., Huben & More, 1894.] 

L. C. 



444 MEXICO. 

1894. 

A general map of the Eepublic of Mexico, by Brigadier-General Pedro Garcia Conde, 
engraved from original survey by order of the Mexican government, and colored 
to show the departments. The capitals of departments, cities, towns, villages, 
and farms are given; also military centres, anchorages, etc. Four sheets; 50 x 37 
inches; 64 miles to an inch (1:055040). 

Note.— Title from Stanford's Catalogue of maps. London, Oct., 1894. 

British Museum catalogue of maps mentions editions of 1845 and 1848 (?) of this map. 

1895. 

Chavez ( E. A. ) Eepublica Mexicana. Recto : Carta muda de geograf la f isica. Verso : 
Carta muda de geografia politica. Paris, Impr. lithog. Ve. Bouret. 

Carta general de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, segun los ultimos datos, for- 

mada bajo la direccion de Ezequiel A. Chdvez, para uso de las escuelas primarias 
de la Eepublica. ^chelle: j, 683,44. Cartes muette et avec lettres. Paris, 1895, 
Imp. Monrocq; lib. Bouret. 

Taken from " Bibliotheca Geographica, 1895." 

1895. 
Map of Mexico. 9 x 10. 

[In Campbell (Rean). Campbell's complete guide and descriptive book of Mexico. 12°. 
Chicago, 1896.] 

L. C. 
1895-1896. 

Carta de comunicaciones de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Formada de orden de 
la Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho de Comunicaciones y Obras Piiblicas por 
el Coronel Bodo von Glumer. Escala: 1 : 1000000. 1895-1896. 2 sheets, each 
51 X 93. Berlin, Grabado 6 impreso en el Institute Litogrdfico, 1895-96. 

L. C. 
1896. 

Carta de la Eepublica Mexicana, d, la 100000*. Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho 
de Fomento. Comision geogrdfica de Guerra y Fomento bajo la direccion del 
ing. A. Diaz. Dib. y escrit. : J. Lopez. Constr. y conflg. : Ing. E. Sandoval. I* 
edici6n, 1888.— Publicada en 1896. I" serie. Hoia-19-1 (Y). 16f x 22. 

L. C. 
1896. 

The valley of Mexico. To illustrate the paper by O. H. Howarth. 1:15000000, or 1 
inch-8 miles. SJ x 7|. 

[In Royal Geographical Society. Journal, 1896. 8°. London, 1896. v. 8, p. 200.] 

L. C. 
1897. 

Carta de la Eepublica Mexicana, d la 100000". Secretaria de Estado y del Despacho 
de Fomento. Comision geogrdfica de Guerra y Fomento bajo la direccion del 
ing. A. Diaz. Constr, y dib.: E. Estrada. Config.: C. Eivera. Escrib.: J. 
Samaniego. Bajo la inspecc. del Ing. C. T. Alvarez. I" edicion, 1893. — Publi- 
cada en 1897. Pserie. Hoja-51-(L). 16| x 22. 

L. C. 
1897. 

Geologische Karte von den Vereinigten Staaten und Mexiko. Massstab: 1 : 20000000. 
8i X 10^. 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 5te Aufl. 8°. 1897. v. 17, bet. pp, 230-231.] 

L. 0. 



CAETOGEAPHY, 445 

1897. 

Mexiko. Massstab: 1:12000000. 8^x10^ 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 6te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig und Wien, Bibliographisches 
Institut, 1897. v. 12, bet. pp. 234-235.] 

L. C. 

1897. 

Mexiko. Massstab: 1:12000000. 8J x 11. 

[In Brockhaus' Konversations-Lexikon. 14te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1895. 
v. 11, bet. pp. 840-841.] 

L. C. 

1897. 

Mexique. fichelle du 10,000,000^ Grave et imp. par Erliard fres., 1897. 10 x 14, 
[In Grande (La) Encyelop6die. 8°. Paris, H. Lamirault & cie., [1885-98]. v. 23, bet. pp. 
864-865.] 

L. C. 

1897. 

A section of north Mexico showing the journeys of J. Gurdon L. Stephenson, F. R, 
G. S., and A. Krauss, F. R. G. S.. 1897. Scale, 1:1250000 or 1 inch— 19.7 miles. 
27 X 14. 

[In Royal Geographical Society. Journal, 1898. 8°. London, 1898. v. 11, p. 464.] 

L. C. 
1897. 

The Century Atlas. Mexico. 10^ x 15. New York, The Century co., 1897. 

L. C. 

1897. 

The Century Atlas. Mexico, central portion. lOJ x 15. New York, The Century 
CO., 1897. L. C. 

1897. 

Vereinigte Staaten und Mexiko. Massstab: 1:20000000. 8^ x 10|. 

[In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon. 5te Aufl. 8°. Leipzig und Wien, Bibliographisches 
Institut, 1897. v. 17, bet. pp. 224-225.] 

L. C. 
1898. 

Mexico. Scale statute miles, 69.16 — 1 degree. Kilometres, 111.307 — 1 degree. 19 
X 26. Chicago, Rand, McNally & co., 1898. 

Note.— Prom Rand, McNally & company's indexed Atlas of the World. Inset: "Map of the 
valley of Mexico on enlarged scale." 

L. C. 
1898. 

Rand, McNally & co.'s indexed State and railroad map of Mexico, showing the rail- 
roads, islands, lakes, mountains, rivers, States, towns and villages. 61 pp. 1 fold, 
map. 18°. Chicago and New York, Rand, McNally & co., [1898]. 

1900. 

Mexico. From official Mexican and other sources. Scale, 50 miles to the inch. 
Size 39 X 28|. Prepared by the Bureau of the American Republics. Wash- 
ington, 1900. 



Page. 

Acids and chemical compounds, manufacture of 256 

Agriculture: 

American capital invested in 258 

Development of I'l 

Government aid to 1^^ 

Agricultural products 1 ' 2 

exports of 267 

wealth. 166 

Aguascalientes, State of (general description, resources, industries, etc.) 70-73 

Aliens, rights of. "^ 

Altitudes: ' 

Of capitals of States 408 

Of mounts, valleys, etc 409 

Antimony 224 

Exports of 230 

Archseology 40 

Area 5,407 

Army 55 

Asphalt and coal, exports of 230 

petroleum, deposits of 234 

Baja California, territory of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) . . . 156-159 

Bananas, production of 204 

Banking legislation and methods 318 

Banks 314-326 

American capital invested in 317 

Principal 316 

Barley 175 

Beer and ale 250 

Bibliography 421 

Boundaries 7 

Budget 306 

Building in Mexico 405 

Cacao, cultivation of 183 

American firms engaged in 184 

production of 184 

Campeche, State of (general description, resounies, trade, industries, etc) 73-78 

Canaigre 211 

Candy, manufacture of 256 

Cartography 427 

Cattle: 

Exports of 215 

Permanent exposition and market for sale of - 257 

Statistics 219 

Census 5 

Central States 57 

Area of 407 

447 



448 INDEX. 

Page. 

Cereala, total production of 175 

Cession of territory to the United States 8 

Chambers of commerce in Mexico 416 

Chiapas, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 78-83 

Chicle, cultivation of 192 

exports of 192 

Chihuahua, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 83-86 

Chocolate, manufacture of 256 

Churches 381-385 

Cities and towns (principal), population of 163 

Citizenship 52 

Climate - 13 

Coahuila, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) 86-92 

Coal 221,224,233 

trade 278 

Coasts 10 

Coffee: 

American firms engaged in planting 178 

Cultivation of 175 

Exports of 268 

Production of 1 78 

Coinage 310 

Colima, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 92-95 

Colonies 372 

Colonists: 

Contracts for introduction of foreign 373 

Government aid to 371 

Colonization 366 

Law 367 

State legislation concerning 372 

Commerce 262 

Commercial travelers in Mexico 291 

Concessions for establishment of new industries 260 

Constitution 50 

General provisions of 54 

Copper 221-224 

and copper ores, exports of 229 

Corn 172 

Cotton: 

Cultivation of 181 

(Raw) imports of, into Mexico 183 

Industry 182,246 

Production of 182 

Cotton-seed mills 255 

Cultivation, native methods 213 

Currency 312 

Custom-houses - 281 

revenue of 298 

Debt, public - 301-305 

Dentistry, regulations for practice of 402 

Diaz, Porfirio 22 

Drawn work 256 

Durango, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) 95-99 



449 

II^DEX. 

Page. 

_ 210 

Dyewoods 

Education: 376 

Compulsory 377 

Law of public instruction _ _ 379 

Statistics concerning ' ' 378 

Educational institutions -----. ' " 423 

Ethnological and archaelogical works on Mexico '/.'.'.'//.'.'.'..--. 24 

Ethnology '_ ; 48 

Executive power ; ' 297, 299 

Expenditures '_'_ 264-270 

Exports ' '_ 268 

Export trade (general) " I5 

Fauna ' "_ 256 

Feather work ,'.' " V J • " •' "-'^^V ' lin '\" .59 

Federal district (general description, political divisions, etc.) ;;;;;;;__ 62 

Value of property in ' ' ' 50 

Federal Government 198-200 

Fiber plants ' ' 295 

Financial organization 14 

Flora '.'..".'.'.". 251,173 

Flour mills 174 

production _ 170 

Forests, national 292 

Free zone 204 

Fruits - 256 

Furniture, manufacture of - g 

Geographical position ^ ^ H 

Geology " 212 

Ginger - 255 

Glassware, manufacture ot - 226 

Gold bullion, exports of - ' " ' 226 

production 311 

and silver, taxes on ^-, 

Government 203 

Grape production gO 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, prefecture of T " • ' V " i'-" " " '+V T qq 1 09 

Guanajuato, State of (general description, resources, f de, industries ec.) 99- 02 
Guerrero, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) .-102-105 

Gulf States - _ 407 

Area of 10 

Gulfs and bays ' _ _ 256 

Gunpowder, manufacture of 213 

Haciendas or plantations, number of - 253 

Hammocks, manufacture of 256 

Hardware, manufacture of 256 

Hat industry 

Henequen: 199,267 

Exports of 198 

Production of '," ' \ \ ' +„ \ i nfi 1 n« 

Hidalgo, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, _^^^-|-;;;_l^^-j;^ 

Hides, exports of _ _ 255 

and skins " 17 

Historical sketch 

509 a— 04 29 



450 INDEX. 

Page. 

Hydrography 10 

Immigration 386 

Import duties inew -290 

Imports 270-274 

Industries 245-261 

American capital invested in 257 

( ceTr"! Government aid to 259 

Miscellaneous 257 

Industrial development. Government aid to 259 

Iron : 222,224 

and steel imports 27S 

works 251 

Irrigation 171 

Islands 10 

Area of 407 

Ixtle: 

Production of 199 

Exports of 200 

Judi cial power 48 

Jalisco, State of (geiieral description, resources, trade, industries, etc.) lOS-112 

Jewelry 255 

Labor in Mexico, cost of 403 

Lakes --- 10 

Land law 364 

Lands, public 362 

Laws: 

Banking 31S 

Colonization 367 

Land 364 

Mining 236 

Patent. 3S6 

Public instruction 377 

Eailroad 344 

Tariff 283 

Trade-mark 395 

L^slative power 47 

Lead mines 221-224 

Libraries 380 

Liquors 2-50 

Living, cost of 402 

Live stock, export of, to Cuba 270 

Alaguey, cultivation of 200 

Manganese, oxide of 224 

Marble "224,225 

Exports of_ 230 

Matches, manufacture of 256 

Manufactures 245 

Manufacturing enterprises, American capital invested in 258 

Measures -113 

Medicinal plants 209 

Medicine, regulations for practice of -401 

Mercury^ 221,222 

Meteorological data 410 



INDEX. 451 

Vase. 

Mexico, city of 62-69 

Mexico, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.; 112-115 

Mezcal ^1 

Michoac4n, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc.). 115-118 

Mineral production 227 

products, exports of 230 

resources -.. ^^ 

Miners, wages of 232 

Mining: 

American capital invested in 233, 258 

Claims 228 

Development 232 

Districts 221 

Law 236 

Legislation 235 

Taxes _ 240 

Methods — 

Patio process - 225,230 

Lixiviation proces 231 

Mints - 309 

Molasses, production of 198 

Monetarv- census 417 

Morelos. State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. » 118-120 

Mountain ranges 9 

Museums 3S0 

Mulberry trees 204 

Navigation 281 

Xavy 56 

2S e w;paf >ers 380 

yorthem States 57 

Area of 407 

Xuevo Leon, State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) . 120-123 

Oaxaca. State of (general description, resources, trade, Industrie, etc.) 123-126 

Oleaginous plants 202 

Olive trees... 204 

Onyx —^.22o 

Opals 223 

Oranges: 

Cultivation of 206 

Exports of 207 

Production of 208 

Orography 9 

Pacific Coast States, area of 407 

Paper: 

!NIanufacttiTe of 249 

Trade 2S0 

Patent law 386 

regulations 391 

Patents, number of, issued 400 

Pearl fishing 254 

shell.- 255 

Petroleum and asphaltum 234 

Pharmacy, regulations for practice of 4C>1 



452 iz^^PEX. 

Rpeapples, enltivaiion and production of , 209 

Plantati:-? r hsjiendas, number of 213 

Plants: 

Fiber 198 

Fodder 210 

Pye-prvxlueing 210 

Medicinal ._ 209 

Oleaginous 202 

Other 212 

Tannins 211 

Polirical divisions 57 

Population 5 

Principal cities and towns 163 

Poie of entry 280 

Postal Serriee 357 

conventions 358 

Pottery works 253 

Prefectures: 

Guadalupe-HidalgC' 60 

Tacabaya 60 

TlaQpam 61 

Xoohimileo 61 

Properry, estimated value of dty and suburban 412 

Precious metals, production of 229 

stones 225 

Puolicauons 380 

Public debt 301-305 

instruction, law of 377 

lands -- 362 

Puebla, State of (general description, resources, trade, indnstri^ etc) 126-127 

Pulque, production of — 200 

QueretarvD. State of i general description, resourt^es, trade, industries, etc).. 127-130 

Bailr>3ad law 344 

tramc with the United State* 343 

Bailways 327 

Americ^an capiial iiiveste»i in 257. 333 

Foreign capital < total i invested in 331 

Eeligion -54,381,382 

Eevenues - — 295 

BSce - --- 175 

Bivss-.. -- - 10 

Bubber: 

Cultivation of - 1S5 

Pn^duction 192 

Exports of - 192 

American nnns engaged in planting 191 

Salt 1 - 221,2^5 

San Luis Potoa, State of ( general description, resources, trade, industries, etc. ) .130-133 

SIkworm industry - 170,204,249 

Silver bullioii. exports of — ^^^ 

OTBS '-. --- 231 

production 221-226 

and gold, taxes on - 311 

Sinal'Tia, State of ^general description, reaoxmi-es. trade, industries, etc) 134—136 



I>T)EX. 



453 



Skins and hides.-- - - ^ -'^^ 

SonoRU State of (general description, resources, trade, industries, etc 136-139 

Specie, exports of - 310 

Sponges -"^~^ 

States: 

AofuascaJientes '- 

Campectie - "^ 

Chiapas "^ 

Chihuahua ^ 

Coahxiila - - -- ^ 

CoUma ^~ 

Durango — ^ 

-> - <w 

(juanaiuatc - - ^^ 

-. ICf* 

<juerrero — - ^"- 

Hidalgo - - - - 1^"^ 

Jahsco - -. - 1*^ 

Mexico ^^ 

Michoacan — -- -^'^ 

Morelos ---- ^^ 

Xuevo Leon - 1^ 

Oaxaca 1-^ 

Puebla - 1^ 

Queretaro - ^' 

San Luis Potosi - 130 

Sinaloa — I*' 

Sonora - - 1^ 

Tabasco - 139 

Tamanlipas 1"^ 

Tlaxcala^ - - 1^ 

Veracruz - 1"^* 

Yucatan — ^^ 

Zacatecas - -- 1-^ 

Area of 6,407 

Census of - ^ 

GrOYemment of - "^^ 

Position and altitude of capital cities. --- 408 

Eevenues and expenditures of -^- 

Steel and iron works '-^- 

Steamship lines ^^ 

concessions ^1 

Stock raising - --*-- 

Sugar: 

Beet --- 

Cane- 
Cultivation of ^^ 

Production of - - 1^* 

Exports of-- -" 1^~ 

MUls ^ 

Planting. American nrms engsige<i in 1^ 

Production 195-19S 

Sulphur deposits - - - — • — "*- ^-^ 

Tabasco, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) 139-142 

Tacubaya, prefecttm? of ^ 



454 INDEX. 



Tamaulipas, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc.) 142-145 

Tanneries 255 

Tanning plants 211 

Tariff 28S 

Telegraph lines 354-35/ 

Telephone service 35/ 

Tepic, territory of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) 159-16S 

Tequila 201 

Territorial division 57 

Territories: 

Area of 40'i 

Baja California 156 

Tepic 15£ 

Tlachique : 201 

Tlalpam, prefecture of 61 

Tlaxcala, State of (gejieral description, resources, trade, etc.) 145-147 

Tobacco: 

Cultivation of 17^ 

Exports of ^ 18] 

Industry 25( 

Production of 18( 

Tonnage 281 

Topography i 

Trade, domestic and foreign 281, 26c 

with the United States 274-275 

Trade-mark law 391 

regulations 395 

Trade-marks, number of registered 40C 

Treaties and conventions with other countries 415 

Valley of Mexico (general description, natural products, drainage, etc.) .. 51 

Vanilla: 

Cultivation of 19c 

Exports of 194 

Veracruz, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) 147-1 5C 

Vine: 

Cultivation of 169, 205 

Production of 20c 

Vital statistics 7, 41( 

Wages in Mexico _ 40-^ 

Weights and measures 41c 

Wheat 175 

Wines 203, 25C 

Woolen goods, manufacture of 245 

Woods 21C 

Cabinet --.- 21C 

Xochimilco, prefecture of 61 

Yucatan, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc. ) 150-15c 

Yucca 215 

Zacatecas, State of (general description, resources, trade, etc.) 153-156 

Zacaton, production of 201 

Zinc 222,227 

o 



G. P. O., Ai: 



